Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mothers and Monsters: Women, Gender, and Genocide

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
A Gendered Lens for Genocide Prevention

Part of the book series: Rethinking Political Violence ((RPV))

  • 766 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter focuses on the ways women are framed in genocide studies as well as in media narratives of genocide. It is shown that relying on received and uncontested concepts of gender leads to seeing women only as victims of genocide. This in turn makes it difficult to see women as perpetrators of genocidal violence. When forced to acknowledge that women are sometimes perpetrators of genocides they are confined to one of two frames: either they are cast as femmes fatales, or they are constructed as monsters and sometimes mother-monsters. It must be recognized that women in fact act as perpetrators of genocide. And it must also be recognized that casting women perpetrators as either femmes fatales or monsters precludes understanding how women do act when committing genocide. There are, indeed, many cases of women perpetrating genocide. To better understand how and why women act as perpetrators, it is argued that West and Zimmerman’s framework of “doing gender” can serve to illuminate the various ways in which women do perpetrate genocides.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Adam Jones, Gender Inclusive: Essays on Violence, Men, and Feminist International Relations (Routledge, 2009).

  2. 2.

    Nicole Hogg, “Women’s Participation in the Rwandan Genocide: Mothers or Monsters,” International Review of the Red Cross 92: 887 (2010): 69.

  3. 3.

    Sara Brown, “Female Perpetrators of the Rwandan Genocide,” International Journal of Feminist Politics 16: 3 (2014): 448.

  4. 4.

    Claudia Card, Confronting Evils: Terrorism, Torture, Genocide (Cambridge University Press, 2010).

  5. 5.

    James Snow, “Don’t Think But Look: Using Wittgenstein’s Notion of Family Resemblances to Look at Genocide,” Genocide Studies and Prevention: an International Journal 9: 3 (2016): 154.

  6. 6.

    Maria Eriksson Baaz and Maria Stern, Sexual Violence as a Weapon of War: Perceptions, Prescriptions, Problems in the Congo and Beyond (Zed Books, 2013).

  7. 7.

    C.R. Carpenter, “Recognizing Gender Based Violence Against Civilian Men and Boys in Conflict Situations,” Security Dialogue 37:1 (2006): 83.

  8. 8.

    Baaz and Stern, Sexual Violence, 35.

  9. 9.

    Ibid., 36.

  10. 10.

    While the focus of this chapter is to show how evident these frames are in genocide narratives, it is also shown that these frames are deeply embedded in more general cultural narratives concerning the role of women. These cultural narratives intersect with and inform media narratives, scholarly narrative, and perpetrator documents.

  11. 11.

    Jean Ringelheim, “Genocide and Gender: A Split Memory,” in: Ronit Lentin (ed), Gender and Catastrophe (Zed Books, 1997): 18.

  12. 12.

    Ibid., 19.

  13. 13.

    Ibid., 20.

  14. 14.

    All but 1 of the 15 chapters included in the latest edition of Samuel Totten and William S. Parsons (eds), Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts (Routledge, 2013) describe their respective genocides reporting the estimated death counts.

  15. 15.

    Troubling is the claim made by Adam Jones concerning the war in Kosovo: “the slaughter of ‘battle-age’ non-combatant men is at least as prominent and enduring a ‘weapon of war’, in the Balkans and throughout history, as is the rape of women – and a more brutal and severe one, by any reasonable standard.” Jones, Gender Inclusive, 103.

  16. 16.

    Ronit Lentin (ed), Gender and Catastrophe (Zed Books, 1997).

  17. 17.

    Selma Leydesdorff, Surviving the Bosnian Genocide: The Women of Srebrenica Speak (Kay Richardson trans, Indiana University Press, 2011).

  18. 18.

    Alexandra Stiglmayer (ed), Mass Rape: The War Against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina (trans Marion Farber trans, University of Nebraska Press, 1994); Binaifer Nowrojee, Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence during the Rwandan Genocide and Its Aftermath. (United States: Human Rights Watch, 1996).

  19. 19.

    Selma Leydesdorff, Surviving the Bosnian Genocide, 7.

  20. 20.

    Karin Mlodoch, “‘We Want to be Remembered as Strong Women, Not as Shepherds:’ Women Anfal Survivors in Kurdistan Iraq Struggling for Agency and Recognition,” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 8 (2012): 65.

  21. 21.

    James Snow, “Don’t Think But Look.”

  22. 22.

    James Snow, “Death is not the End of Genocide: Reflections on Armenia” (Speech delivered Surviving the Catastrophe: Commemoration of the Armenian Genocide, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, 30 April 2015) https://www.academia.edu/12199589/Death_is_not_the_end_of_genocide_Reflections_on_the_genocide_of_the_Armenians

  23. 23.

    http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/12/opinion/12dealey.html

  24. 24.

    Claudia Card, Confronting Evils, 237.

  25. 25.

    Ibid.

  26. 26.

    Ibid.

  27. 27.

    Ibid.

  28. 28.

    Jean Améry, At the Mind’s Limits: Contemplations by a Survivor and its Realities (Sidney and Stella Rosenfeld trans, Indiana University Press, 1980).

  29. 29.

    Imre Kertész, Kaddish for an Unborn Child. (Tim Wilkinson trans, Random House, 2004).

  30. 30.

    Leydesdorff, Surviving the Bosnian Genocide.

  31. 31.

    Judith Butler, Frames of War: When Does Life Become Grievable? (Verso, 2010), xiii.

  32. 32.

    Others have used Butler’s notion of the frame in other but related contexts. See for example Maria Eriksson Baaz and Maria Stern, Sexual Violence as a Weapon of War. Baaz and Stern use the notion of the frame to explore the hegemonic discourse of rape as a weapon of war.

  33. 33.

    While borrowing from Judith Butler the idea of frames, the particular frames utilized in this chapter are frames developed by the author. It is not claimed that these frames are exhaustive of genocide scholarship or media accounts. Content analysis by the author finds that scholarship and media accounts often and repeatedly rely on these four frames.

  34. 34.

    Sharon Hays, The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood (Yale University Press, 1997).

  35. 35.

    Deidre Johnston and Debra Swanson, “Invisible Mothers: A Content Analysis of Motherhood Ideologies and Myths in Magazines,” Sex Roles 49: 1/2 (2003): 22.

  36. 36.

    Judith Butler provides a careful critique of Kristeva in Gender Trouble (Routledge, 1990).

  37. 37.

    Toril Moi (ed), The Kristeva Reader (Columbia University Press, 1990), 206.

  38. 38.

    Ibid.

  39. 39.

    Catherine Clément and Julia Kristeva, The Feminine and the Sacred. (Jane Marie Todd trans, Columbia University Press, 1998), 137.

  40. 40.

    The distinction between participants and perpetrators is especially germane in the accounts of women’s roles in the genocide in Rwanda. Women were thought to participate for example by calling out the location of Tutsis in hiding, or looting the homes of Tutsis who had gone into hiding or been killed. In other words, women “participants” were seen as helping their husbands or men-folk, but not as directly perpetrating violence. When women are cast as helper/participants it places them in an ancillary role and not as active perpetrators.

  41. 41.

    Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex (Constance Borde and Shiela Malovany-Chevallier trans, Vintage, 2011).

  42. 42.

    Michiel Leezenburg, “The Anfal Operations in Iraqi Kurdistan,” in Samuel Totten and William S. Parsons (eds), Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts (Routledge, 4th ed, 2013), 395, 400.

  43. 43.

    Ibid., 400.

  44. 44.

    Karin Mlodoch, “We Want to be Remembered as Strong Women, Not as Shepherds,” 66.

  45. 45.

    Adam Jones, “Gender and Genocide, in Rwanda” Journal of Genocide Research 4:1 (2002): 65.

  46. 46.

    Dominik Schaller, “The Genocide of the Herero and Nama in German South-West Africa, 1904–1907,” in Samuel Totten and William S. Parsons (eds), Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts (Routledge, 4th ed, 2013) 89, 89.

  47. 47.

    Kelly Oliver, Women as Weapons of War: Iraq, Sex, and the Media (Columbia University Press, 2010) 29.

  48. 48.

    Limitations of space does not allow for a detailed treatment of the role of the media in the genocide in Rwanda. There exists a large scholarly literature on the topic. For a detailed analysis of the role of the media see, Allan Thompson (ed), The Media and the Rwanda Genocide (Pluto Press, 2007).

  49. 49.

    Binaifer Nowrojee, “A Lost Opportunity for Justice: Why did the ICTR Not Prosecute Gender Propoganda?” in Allan Thompson (ed.) The Media and the Rwanda Genocide (Pluto Press, 2007) 364–365.

  50. 50.

    Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology Among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (University of Chicago Press, 1995), 82–84.

  51. 51.

    Ibid., 84–86.

  52. 52.

    Ibid., 86.

  53. 53.

    Charlotte Delbo, Days and Memory (Rosette Lamont trans, Marlboro Press/Northwestern University Press, 1985), 1.

  54. 54.

    The controversy has shown no sign of dimming. Deborah Lipstadt’s The Eichmann Trial and Bettina Stangneth’s Eichmann vor Jerusalem: Das unbehelligte Leben eines Massenmörde—both based on material and sources only recently available to scholars—are two of the more recent attempts to retry Eichmann and reveal the virulent anti-Semitic monster hidden beneath the mask of banality in the person of Eichmann as depicted by Arendt. At the heart of much of the criticism of Arendt is the claim that she failed to see the monster.

  55. 55.

    Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (Penguin, 2006), 252.

  56. 56.

    Trudi Weiss Rosmarin, “Self-Hating Jewess Writes Pro-Eichmann Series for The New Yorker magazine,” Jewish Times 19 April 1963.

  57. 57.

    Lionel Abel, “The Aesthetics of Evil,” Partisan Review 30 (1963): 212, 225.

  58. 58.

    Jean Hatzfeld, A Time for Machetes, the Rwandan Genocide: The Killers Speak (Linda Coverdale trans, Serpent’s Tail, 2008), 44.

  59. 59.

    Prosecutor v. Nyiramasuhuko et al., Case No. ICTR-98-42-T, paragraph 6166, 1445.

  60. 60.

    Josephine Hazeley, “Profile: Female Rwandan killer Pauline Nyiramasuhuko,” BBC News (online), 24 June 2011, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13907693

  61. 61.

    Peter Landesman, “A Woman’s Work,” New York Times Sunday Magazine (New York, 15 September 2002).

  62. 62.

    Euripides, Medea (James Morwood trans, Oxford University Press, 2009), 39–41.

  63. 63.

    Landesman, “A Woman’s Work.”

  64. 64.

    Euripides, Medea, 856–862.

  65. 65.

    Ibid., 1070–1071.

  66. 66.

    Ibid., 1239–1240.

  67. 67.

    Adriana Cavarero, Horrorism: Naming Contemporary Violence (William McCuaig trans, Columbia University Press, 2011), 26.

  68. 68.

    Landesman, “A Woman’s Work.”

  69. 69.

    Ibid.

  70. 70.

    Butler, Gender Trouble, 33.

  71. 71.

    Sally Haslanger, “Gender and Race: (What) Are They? (What) Do We Want Them To Be?” NOÛS 34: 1 (2000): 3, 33.

  72. 72.

    Slavoj Žižek, “The Real of Sexual Difference,” in Suzanne Barnard and Bruce Fink (eds), Reading Seminar XX: Lacan’s Major Work on Love, Knowledge, and Feminine Sexuality (SUNY, 2002), 57, 61.

  73. 73.

    Joan Copjec offers a similar reading of Lacan. See Read My Desire: Lacan Against Historicists (MIT, 1994).

  74. 74.

    Ludwig Wittgenstein, and G.E.M Anscombe, P.M.S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte (trans), Philosophische Untersuchungen (Philosophical Investigations) (Wiley-Blackwell, 4th ed, 2009), §66.

  75. 75.

    Kimberlé Crenshaw introduced the concept of “intersectionality” in two articles, one from 1989, and one from 1991. Her original use of the term helped to show ways in which law, and especially anti-discrimination legislation sometimes reproduces oppression for women of colour by failing to recognize the intersectionality of gender and race. Following the publication of Crenshaw’s articles feminist scholars have used the concept to explore the multiple and interrelated forms of oppression. See Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory, and Antiracist Politics,” University of Chicago Legal Forum (1989): 139; Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color,” Stanford Law Review 43 (1991): 1241. Since her introduction of the term, intersectionality has been adopted by feminist writers across a range of academic disciplines.

  76. 76.

    This is underscored especially by the testimonies of those who trans-gender.

  77. 77.

    Catherine E. Harnois, “Race, Ethnicity, Sexuality, and Women’s Political Consciousness of Gender,” Social Psychology Quarterly 78 (2015): 365.

  78. 78.

    Candace West and Donald Zimmerman, “Doing Gender” Gender and Society 1:2 (1987): 125, 140.

  79. 79.

    Ibid., 127.

  80. 80.

    Ibid., 129.

  81. 81.

    Ibid., 137.

  82. 82.

    Christine Sylvester (ed), Masquerades of War (Routledge, 2015).

  83. 83.

    Ibid., np.

  84. 84.

    Jody Miller, “Doing Crime as doing Gender: Masculinities, Femininities, and Crime,” in Rosemary Gartner and Bill McCarthy (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Gender, Sex, and Crime (Oxford University Press, 2014), 19, 21.

  85. 85.

    Nicole Hogg describes the traditional gender roles assumed by men and women in pre-genocide Rwanda. She cites a report in Ligue des Droit de la personne dans la region des Grands Lacs (LDGL), Obstacles culturels á la Mise en œrvre de la Convention sur l’Elimination de Toutes les Formes de Discrimination á l’égard des Femmes au Burundi, en RD Congo et au Rwanda, October 2007 which claims, to “build a house or animal pen, go to the battlefield, milk the cows, ensure the family income, and defend and protect the family were tasks assigned to men, while doing the housework, educating the children [and] pounding grain were tasks specific to women in rural areas.” Cited in Hogg, “Women’s Participation in the Rwandan Genocide,” 72.

  86. 86.

    The full text of the letter is reproduced in The New York Times, “Letter by Adolf Eichmann to President Yitzhak Ben-Zvi of Israel,” The New York Times (online), 27 January 2016 http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/28/world/middleeast/adolf-eichmann-letter-to-israel-president.html?action=click&contentCollection=Middle%20East&module=RelatedCoverage&region=Marginalia&pgtype=article

  87. 87.

    Hatzfeld, A Time for Machetes, 54.

  88. 88.

    Hatzfeld, A Time for Machetes, 57.

  89. 89.

    Along these lines it is important to note how often Nazi and SS elites such as Mengele, Stengl, and Eichmann framed their involvement in the Holocaust in terms of work.

  90. 90.

    It must of course be recognized that Eichmann is speaking and writing on the occasion of his trial and sentencing. There is recently available evidence to the effect that his defence was something of a charade.

  91. 91.

    Hatzfeld, A Time for Machetes, 34–35.

  92. 92.

    Ibid., 44.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., 30.

  94. 94.

    Ibid., 33.

  95. 95.

    Primus is a Belgian beer, a reminder of Rwanda’s colonial past.

  96. 96.

    Hatzfeld, A Time for Machetes, 45.

  97. 97.

    Hogg, “Women’s Participation in the Rwandan Genocide,” 78.

  98. 98.

    Ibid., 83–89.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., 77.

  100. 100.

    Ibid., 78.

  101. 101.

    Ibid., 71–76.

References

  • Abel, Lionel. “The Aesthetics of Evil.” Partisan Review 210 (1963): 211–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • African Rights. Rwanda: Death, Despair, and Defiance. London: African Rights, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Améry, Jean. At the Mind’s Limits: Contemplations by a Survivor and its Realities. Sidney Rosenfeld and Stella P. Rosenfeld trans, Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arendt, Hannah. Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. New York: Penguin, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arendt, Hannah, and Ernst Blücher. Briefe 1936–1968. München: Piper, 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baaz, Maria Eriksson, and Maria Stern. Sexual Violence as a Weapon of War? Perceptions, Problems in the Congo and Beyond. London: Zed, 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brine, Kevin, Elena Ciletti, and Henrike Lähnemann (eds). The Sword of Judith: Judith Studies Across the Discipline. Cambridge: Open Books, 2010.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, Sara. “Female Perpetrators of the Rwandan Genocide.” International Journal of Feminist Politics 448 (2014): 448–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble. New York: Routledge, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, Judith. Frames of War: When Does Life Become Grievable? London: Verso, 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Card, Claudia. Confronting Evils: Terrorism, Torture, Genocide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Cavarero, Adriano. Horrorism: Naming Contemporary Violence. William McCuaig trans, New York: Columbia University Press, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clément, Catherine, and Julia Kristeva The Feminine and the Sacred. Jane Marie Todd trans, New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R.W. “Forward.” James Messerschmidt (ed), Masculinities and Crime. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Copjec, Joan. Read My Desire: Lacan Against Historicists. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delbo, Charlotte. Days and Memory. Rosette Lamont trans, Evanston, IL: Marlboro/Northwestern University Press, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dostoyevsky, Fyodor. The Brothers Karamazov, Constance Garnett trans, New York: Heritage Press, 1933.

    Google Scholar 

  • Euripides. Medea. James Morwood trans, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haslanger, Sally. “Gender and Race: (What) Are They? (What) Do We Want Them To Be?” NOÛS 31 (2000): 31–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzfeld, Jean. A Time for Machetes, The Rwandan Genocide: The Killers Speak. Linda Coverdale trans, London: Serpent’s Tail, 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hays, Sharon. The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hazeley, Josephine. “Profile: Female Rwandan killer Pauline Nyiramasuhuko.” BBC News (online), 24 June 2011, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13907693.

  • Hogg, Nicole. “Women’s Participation in the Rwandan Genocide: Mothers or Monsters.” International Review of the Red Cross 69 (2010): 69–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Human Rights Watch. Iraq’s Crime of Genocide. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, Deirdre, and Debra Swanson “Invisible Mothers: A Content Analysis of Motherhood Ideologies and Myths in Magazines.” Sex Roles 21 (2003): 21–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, Adam. “Gender and Genocide in Rwanda.” Journal of Genocide Research 65 (2002):65–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, Adam. Gender Inclusive: Essays on Violence, Men, and Feminist International Relations. New York: Routledge, 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Julia, Kristeva The Kristeva Reader. Toril Moi (ed), New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kertéz, Imre. Kaddish for an Unborn Child. Wilkinson trans, New York: Random House, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landesman, Peter. “A Woman’s Work.” New York Times Sunday Magazine (15 September 2002).

    Google Scholar 

  • Leezenberg, Michiel. “The Anfal in Iraqi Kurdistan.”In: Samuel Totten and William S. Parsons (eds), Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. New York: Routledge, 4th ed, 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leydesdorff, Selma. Surviving the Bosnian Genocide: The Women of Srebrenica Speak. Kay Richardson trans, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipstadt, Deborah. The Eichmann Trial. New York: Nextbooks/Schocken, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malkki, Liisa. Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology Among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, Jody. “Doing Crime as Doing Gender: Masculinities, Feminities, and Crime.” In: Rosemary Gardner and Bill McCarthy (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Gender, Sex, and Crime. Oxford, 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, Kelly. Women as Weapons of War: Iraq, Sex, and the Media. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ringelheim, Joan. “Genocide and Gender: A Split Memory.” Ronit Lentin (ed), Gender and Catastrophe. London: Zed Books, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosmarin, Trude Weiss. “Self-hating Jewess Writes Pro-Eichmann Series for The New Yorker Magazine.” Jewish News, 19 April 1963.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaller, Dominik. “The Genocide of the Herero and Nama in German South-West Africa, 1904–1907.” In: Samuel Totten and William S. Parsons (eds), Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. New York: Routledge, 4th ed, 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons, Marlise. “Life Sentences in Rwandan Genocide Case.” New York Times A4 25 June (2011).

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, James. “Death is not the End of Genocide: Reflections on Armenia.” Speech delivered at “Surviving the Catastrophe: Commemoration of the Armenian Genocide, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, 30 April 2015. https://www.academia.edu/12199589/Death_is_not_the_end_of_genocide_Reflections_on_the_genocide_of_the_Armenians

  • Snow, James. “Don’t Think But Look: Using Wittgenstein’s Notion of Family Resemblances to Look at Genocide.” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal 9:3 (2016): 154–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stangneth, Bettina. Eichmann vor Jerusalem: Das unbehelligte Leben eines Massenmörders. Zurich: Verlag, 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Straus, Scott. The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sylvester, Christine (ed). Masquerades of War. New York: Routledge, 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • West, Candace, and Donald Zimmerman. “Doing Gender.” Gender and Society 1:2 (1987): 125–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Žižek, Slavoj. “The Real of Sexual Difference.” Suzanne Barnard and Bruce Fink (eds), Reading Seminar XX: Lacan’s Major Work on Love, Knowledge, and Feminine Sexuality. Albany, New York: SUNY, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Loyola University Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA

    James Snow

Authors
  1. James Snow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to James Snow .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Juris Doctor Program, Melbourne Law School, Melbourne, Australia

    Mary Michele Connellan

  2. Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

    Christiane Fröhlich

Copyright information

© 2018 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Snow, J. (2018). Mothers and Monsters: Women, Gender, and Genocide. In: Connellan, M., Fröhlich, C. (eds) A Gendered Lens for Genocide Prevention. Rethinking Political Violence. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60117-9_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation