Abstract
In this chapter, we take stock of everything we discussed so far in order to address two challenges of democratic life. The first challenge is that most voters understand essentially nothing of the policies they vote for. It would seem natural to think that the psychology of reasoning might be helpful in that respect—that is, that we could help citizens to vote better. I argue that this is extremely unlikely to work. The second challenge is that voters needlessly construe other (differently minded) voters as stupid and malevolent, when they could as easily get along with one another. In this regard, I argue, the psychology of reasoning has an important role to play, in order to help citizens realize that what they see as a moral chasm is really only the result of good people deluding themselves and one another.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Achen, C. H., & Bartels, L. M. (2016). Democracy for realists: Why elections do not produce responsive government. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Baron, J. (2008). Thinking and deciding (4th ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1988.)
Baron, J. (2015). Citizenship and morality. Current Opinion in Psychology, 6, 6–9.
Bloom, P. (2017). Against empathy: The case for rational compassion. London: Random House.
Bonnefon, J. F. (in press). The pros and cons of identifying critical thinking with System 2 processing. Topoi.
Brennan, J. (2016). Against democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Caplan, B. (2011). The myth of the rational voter: Why democracies choose bad policies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Crawford, J. T., & Xhambazi, E. (2015). Predicting political biases against the Occupy Wall Street and Tea Party movements. Political Psychology, 36, 111–121.
De Neys, W. (2012). Bias and conflict: A case for logical intuitions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 128–138.
De Neys, W., & Bonnefon, J. F. (2013). The whys and whens of individual differences in thinking biases. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17, 172–178.
De Neys, W., Moyens, E., & Vansteenwegen, D. (2010). Feeling we’re biased: Autonomic arousal and reasoning conflict. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 10, 208–216.
De Neys, W., Vartanian, W., & Goel, V. (2008). Smarter than we think: When our brains detect that we are biased. Psychological Science, 19, 483–489.
Ditto, P. H., Liu, B., Clark, C. J., Wojcik, S. P., Chen, E. E., Grady, R. H., & Zinger, J. F. (2017). At Least Bias is Bipartisan: A Meta-Analytic Comparison of Partisan Bias in Liberals and Conservatives. Working paper. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2952510
Ehrlinger, J., Gilovich, T., & Ross, L. (2005). Peering into the bias blind spot: People’s assessments of bias in themselves and others. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 680–692.
Fernbach, P. M., Rogers, T., Fox, C., & Sloman, S. A. (2013). Political extremism is supported by an illusion of understanding. Psychological Science, 24, 939–946.
Frimer, J. A., Skitka, L. J., & Motyl, M. (2017). Liberals and conservatives are similarly motivated to remain ignorant of one another’s opinions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 72, 1–12.
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 1029–1046.
Haidt, J. (2012). The righteous mind: Why good people are divided by politics and religion. New York: Pantheon.
Hatemi, P. K., & McDermott, R. (2012). The genetics of politics: Discovery, challenges, and progress. Trends in Genetics, 28, 525–533.
Hatemi, P. K., Medland, S. E., Klemmensen, R., Oskarsson, S., Littvay, L., Dawes, C. T., … Martin, N. G. (2014). Genetic influences on political ideologies: Twin analyses of 19 measures of political ideologies from five democracies and genome-wide findings from three populations. Behavior Genetics, 44, 282–294.
Hibbing, J. R., Smith, K. B., & Alford, J. R. (2014). Differences in negativity bias underlie variations in political ideology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 37, 297–350.
Hibbing, J. R., Smith, K. B., Peterson, J. C., & Feher, B. (2014). The deeper sources of political conflict: Evidence from the psychological, cognitive, and neuro-sciences. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 111–113.
Jost, J. (2017). Ideological asymmetries and the essence of political psychology. Political Psychology, 38, 167–208.
Kahan, D. M. (2013). Ideology, motivated reasoning, and cognitive reflection. Judgment and Decision Making, 8, 407–424.
Kahan, D. M., & Corbin, J. C. (2016). A note on the perverse effects of actively open-minded thinking on climate-change polarization. Research & Politics, 3, 2053168016676705.
Kahan, D. M., Peters, E., Wittlin, M., Slovic, P., Larrimore Ouellette, L., Braman, D., & Mandel, G. (2012). The polarizing impact of science literacy and numeracy on perceived climate change risks. Nature Climate Change, 2, 732–735.
Koleva, S. P., Graham, J., Iyer, R., Ditto, P. H., & Haidt, J. (2012). Tracing the threads: How five moral concerns (especially purity) help explain culture war attitudes. Journal of Research in Personality, 46, 184–194.
Newman, G. E., Bloom, P., & Knobe, J. (2014). Value judgments and the true self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 203–216.
Newman, G. E., De Freitas, J., & Knobe, J. (2015). Beliefs about the true self explain asymmetries based on moral judgment. Cognitive Science, 39, 96–125.
Oxley, D. R., Smith, K. B., Alford, J. R., Hibbing, M. V., Miller, J. L., Scalora, M., … Hibbing, J. R. (2008). Political attitudes vary with physiological traits. Science, 321, 1667–1670.
Pennycook, G., Fugelsang, J. A., & Koehler, D. J. (2015). What makes us think? A three-stage dual-process model of analytic engagement. Cognitive Psychology, 80, 34–72.
Schwitzgebel, E. (2009). Do ethicists steal more books? Philosophical Psychology, 22, 711–725.
Somin, I. (2016). Democracy and political ignorance: Why smaller government is smarter. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2008). On the relative independence of thinking biases and cognitive ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 672–695.
Ståhl, T., Zaal, M. P., & Skitka, L. J. (2016). Moralized rationality: Relying on logic and evidence in the formation and evaluation of belief can be seen as a moral issue. PLoS One, 11, e0166332.
Stein, R. (2017). “Trumping” conformity: Urges towards conformity to ingroups and nonconformity to morally opposed outgroups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 70, 34–40.
Strohminger, N., Knobe, J., & Newman, G. (2017). The true self: A psychological concept distinct from the self. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12, 551–560.
Taber, S. C., & Lodge, M. (2006). Motivated skepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs. American Journal of Political Science, 50, 755–769.
Terrizzi, J. A., Shook, N. J., & McDaniel, M. A. (2013). The behavioral immune system and social conservatism: A meta-analysis. Evolution and Human Behavior, 34, 99–108.
Weeden, J., & Kurzban, R. (2014). The hidden agenda of the political mind: How self-interest shapes our opinions and why we won’t admit it. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 2017 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bonnefon, JF. (2017). Democracy. In: Reasoning Unbound. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60049-3_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60049-3_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-60048-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-60049-3
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)