Abstract
Black Social Economy is not merely concerned with the financial or material capital that sustains Black life, but with the interrelated educational, social, cultural, educational, judicial, religious, and agricultural structures that mediate the circumstances in which Black people find themselves in Western capitalist societies. Building on the observations of contributors, and following Ivan Light’s (Ethnic and Racial Studies 7(2):195–216, 1984/2010) analysis of the entrepreneurial opportunities and practices of immigrants and minoritized people, I offer a reading of the societal contexts in which Black people struggled against inequity, racism, and colonialism to assert their presence and gain respect. I discuss the hope and faith that are placed in education, the influential role of women, and why, despite individuals’ self-reliance, self-determination, and adaptability, “resilience” as framed by neoliberalism does not suitably explain their achievements.
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Notes
- 1.
For example, BLM–Toronto consistently protests police actions, particularly their shooting and killing of members of the Black community, and young people in particular. In spring 2016, BLM–Toronto occupied the front of the Toronto Police Headquarters for weeks and in doing so called for the dissolution of the police Special Investigative Unit (SIU). And following their street protest at the Gay Pride Parade where they demanded that police not participate, the chief of police, in January 2017, announced that this will be the case.
- 2.
For instance, Derek Hawkins (September 2016) reported in The Washington Post that in the summer of 2016, the BLM flag was raised in front of the student center the University of Vermont. As one student said: “I wanted to cry when I saw this. My body filled with lots of joy to know that my predominantly White University is paying tribute to the deaths in the Black community. It’s the littlest thing that just means so much to me!”
- 3.
For instance, in Canada writing in Maclean’s magazine, Katie Ingram (2016) notes, “In the wake of Black Lives Matter, Dalhousie University’s African-Canadian studies course emerges.”
- 4.
In the case of the US, Emily Deruy (2016) writes in The Atlantic of “how Black Lives Matter activists plan to fix schools,” noting that in their call “for an end to charter schools and juvenile detention centers,” the group published a platform in which they noted that “the U.S. public-school system is so broken that college is never an option for many young people of color. And while many universities are privately controlled, the group sees an opportunity to return control of K-12 public schools to the students, parents, and communities they serve.”
- 5.
With reference to actions in the US, Vega (2016) reports that “Black Lives Matter activists are expanding their call for justice to a new target: the economy.” He cites “a detailed proposal” developed by “a consortium of more than 50 civil rights groups” saying that the group “laid out an ambitious plan to improve the financial lives of Black Americans with a heavy emphasis on reparations, investing in Black communities and economic justice.”
- 6.
I was recently reminded of BLM concern with health when I was invited to join “The Black Lives Matter in Healthcare” committee in which a number of Black and other health care organizations (including one local hospital) in Toronto were planning a symposium (March 2017) to examine Black people’s experiences in health care.
- 7.
I have used African, Black, African diaspora interchangeably to refer to the same people. This is not to convey any particular political position that each term might represent. These terms are also variously used by authors in this volume. Also my reference to people from the Caribbean or Caribbean people are mainly to Blacks or those of African descent.
- 8.
Of course, as Hossein and Skerritt write, this individual savings and community building practice continues in Toronto today. And as I heard from my sister while writing this chapter, this is a form of discipline and a means of “compulsory saving,” which enables participants to pay their bills and make big purchases such as cars and houses.
- 9.
Immigrant (including refugees)—another word is “foreigners”—is used to refer to those diaspora people who might have immigrated but many of whom are now citizens but are constructed as immigrants or foreigners—a construct which is used to differentiate them from others (see James 2012a).
- 10.
It is accepted that culture is dynamic, and hence constantly changing. But there are attributes—particularly foundational ones that will remain, even as residues as ideas and practices of the new or dominant culture are adopted.
- 11.
Similar collective actions are evident in communities in Brazil and Buenos Aires as noted in Chaps. 7, 8, and 9. I would assume things are also similar in other societies/communities with a significant immigrant and marginalized populations. See also Michelle Nicola’s (2016) essay about students’ engagement with “Afro-Mexican” history.
- 12.
- 13.
One growing community initiative in Toronto that has its origin in Cleveland, Ohio, US, is the Rites of Passage (ROP) program. It is designed to inspire and support African youth through its African-centered educational and social activities to build their self-efficacy, self-confidence, self-knowledge, and cultural pride while nurturing communal bonds and responsibility as they transition into adulthood (see Iv et al. 2011; Woodgreen Rites of Passage 2014).
- 14.
Significant numbers of Black Caribbean people immigrated to Canada during the late 1960s and early 1970s with 1971–1975 being the peak years. The social and cultural adjustment needs and problems of these children—many of whom were seeing their parents (mostly mothers) after many years of separation—were things that the community-based organizations had to address (see Head 1975; Johnson 2012; Kitossa 2012).
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James, C.E. (2018). Black Life in the Americas: Economic Resources, Cultural Endowment, and Communal Solidarity. In: Hossein, C. (eds) The Black Social Economy in the Americas. Perspectives from Social Economics. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60047-9_10
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