Introduction

bin Tyeer, Sarah R.

doi:10.1057/978-1-137-59875-2_1

Sarah R. bin Tyeer³

Part of the book series: Literatures and Cultures of the Islamic World ((LCIW))

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Abstract

The introduction raises several questions about the methods used to read pre-modern Arabic adab. As it establishes the role of the aesthetics of the Qur’an in adab, I argue that this role generates a healthy ‘unbelief’ at the frozen and self-enclosed literary judgements that have become dogmas and a system of belief in themselves. The introduction establishes the role of the Qur’an in adab, the definition of adab and its role and difference from ‘literature’, the system of adab and its moral vocabulary, aesthetics, as well as the meaning of qubḥ in the lexicons and its occurrence in the Qur’an.

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Notes

1.
More on this in Chaps. 9 and 10.
2.
I discuss this work elsewhere in ‘The Qur’an and the Aesthetics of adab’ in Qur’an and adab: The Shaping of Classical Literary Tradition, ed. Nuha al-Shaʿar (London: Oxford University Press & The Institute of Ismaili Studies, Forthcoming, 2016).
3.
Tawfı̄q Saʿı̄d, ‘al-Jamı̄l wa l-muqaddas fı̄ Khibratayy al-Fann wa l-dīn’, ALIF: Journal of Comparative Poetics 23 (2003): 11.
4.
Ibid.
5.
Carl W. Ernst, Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004), 28–9.
6.
Kamal Abu-Deeb, ‘Studies in the Majāz and Metaphorical Language of the Qur’ān’ in Literary Structures of Religious Meaning in the Qur’an, ed. Issa J. Boullata (Richmond: Curzon, 2000), 344.
7.
See Paul Henle ed., Language, Thought and Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1958); see also Shukri B. Abed, ‘Language’ in History of Islamic Philosophy, ed. Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman (New York: Routledge, 1996), 898–925.
8.
Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur ʾān (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002), 74.
9.
Adūnis, al-Naṣṣ al-Qur ʾāni wa Afāq al-Kitāba (Beirut: Dār al-Adāb, 1993), 21–2.
10.
Ebrahim Moosa, ‘Textuality in Muslim Imagination: from authority to metaphoricity’, Acta Academica Supplementum 1 (1995): 57.
11.
Nasr Abu Zayd, ‘The Dilemma of the Literary Approach to the Qur’an’ ALIF: Journal of Comparative Poetics 23 (2003): 8.
12.
See, Navid Kermani, Gott ist schön: das ästhetische Erleben des Koran (München:C.H. Beck, 2000). See also, the Arabic translation, Navid Kermani, balāghat al-nūr: jamālı̄yāt al-naṣṣ al-qurʼānı̄, trans. Muḥammad Aḥmad Mansūr et al. (Freiburg: Al-Kamel Verlag, 2008).
13.
Adūnı̄s, al-Naṣṣ al-Qur ʾāni, 21–2.
14.
Abu-Deeb, ‘Studies in Majāz and Metaphorical Language of the Qur’an’, 345.
15.
Ibid. 340. See, also al-Sharı̄f al-Raḍı̄, Talkhı̄s al-Bayān fı̄ Majāzāt al-Qur ʾān, ed. ʿAlı̄ Maḥmūd Maqlad (Beirut: Dār Maktabat al-Ḥayāt, n.d.), 34.
16.
Abu-Deeb, ‘Studies in the Majāz and Metaphorical Language of the Qur’ān’, 345.
17.
Abu Zayd, ‘The Dilemma of the Literary Approach to the Qur’an’, 14.
18.
Taha Hussein, fı̄ l Shi ʿr al-Jāhilı̄, 20–6 cited in Abu Zayd, ‘The Dilemma of the Literary Approach to the Qur’an’, 21.
19.
Taha Hussein, fı̄ l Shi‘r al-Jāhilı̄: al-Kitāb wa l-Qaḍiyya (Cairo: Ruʾya li-l-Nashr wa l-Tawzīʾ, 2007), 80.
20.
Adūnı̄s, al-Naṣṣ Qur ʾāni wa Afāq al-Kitāba, 22.
21.
Tammām Ḥassān, al-Usūl: Dirāsa Ebistı̄mūlūjiyya li-l-Fikr al-Lughawı̄ ʿinda al-ʿArab (Cairo: ʿĀlam al-Kutub, 2000), 241. See, ibid., for classifications under fiqh al-lugha and what it includes.
22.
See, ‘Grammar and Grammarians ’ in Encyclopedia of Medieval Islamic Civilization, ed. Josef W. Meri and Jere L. Bacharach (London: Routledge, 2005), 1: 300.
23.
Abu Zayd, ‘The Dilemma of the Literary Approach to the Qur’an’, 38.
24.
Adūnı̄s, al-Naṣṣ al-Qur ʾāni wa-Afāq al-Kitāba, 35.
25.
Ibid.
26.
Sayyid Qutb, al-Taṣwı̄r al-Fannı̄ fi l-Qur ʾān, (Cairo: Dār al-Shurūq, 2002), 36.
27.
Adūnı̄s, al-Naṣṣ al-Qur ʾāni wa Afāq al-Kitāba, 35.
28.
Berque, Relire le Coran, 34 cited in Ziad elMarsafy, The Enlightenment Qur’an (Oxford: Oneworld, 2009), 191.
29.
See Jūrjı̄ Zaydān, Tarı̄kh Ādāb al-Lugha al- ʿArabiyya (Cairo: Dār al-Hilāl, n.d.), 1: 191.
30.
Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ‘Text and Textuality: Q. 3:7 as a Point of Intersection’ in Literary Structures of Religious Meaning in the Qur’an, ed. Issa J. Boullata, (Richmond: Curzon, 2000), 70.
31.
Sheldon Pollock, ‘Future Philology? The Fate of a Soft Science in a Hard World’, Critical Inquiries 35, no. 4 (2009): 957.
32.
See, Wadad Kadi, ‘The Impact of the Qurʾān on the Epistolography of ʿAbd al-Ḥamı̄d,’ in Approaches to the Qur ʾān, ed. G. R. Hawting and Abdul-Kader Shareef (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), 285–313.
33.
See, M.A.S. Abdel-Haleem, ‘The Qur’an in the Novels of Naguib Mahfouz,’ Journal of Qur’anic Studies 16:3 (2014): 126–104, see the rest of this special issue ‘The Qur’an in Modern World Literature’ for more on the Qur’an and literature. See also, Hoda El Shakry, ‘Revolutionary Eschatology: Islam & the End of Time in al-Ṭāhir Waṭṭār’s al-Zilzāl,’ Journal of Arabic Literature 42 (2011): 120–47.
34.
Ziad elMarsafy, The Enlightenment Qur’an (Oxford: Oneworld, 2009), xi.
35.
Ibid., 180.
36.
Humberto Garcia, Islam and the English Enlightenment 1670–1849 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), 3.
37.
Edward Said, ‘The World, the Text and the Critic’, The Bulletin of the Midwest Modern Language Association 8, no. 2 (1975): 4.
38.
Oleg Grabar, ‘The Qur’an as a Source of Artistic Inspiration’ in Word of God, Art of Man: The Qur’an and its Creative Expressions, ed. Fahmida Suleman (Oxford: Oxford University Press & The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2007), 38. Grabar’s call has been answered where the visual arts are concerned; See, Ahmad Moustafa and Stefan Sperl, The Cosmic Script: Sacred Geometry and the Science of Arabic Penmanship, (London: Thames & Hudson, 2014).
39.
Adūnı̄s, al-Naṣṣ al-Qur ʾāni wa Afāq al-Kitāba, 36.
40.
Abdelfattah Kilito, al-Adab wa l-Gharāba (Morocco: Toubkal, 2006), 21–2. 3rd edition.
41.
Ibid., 21.
42.
Ibid., 22.
43.
Kilito, al-Adab wa l-Gharāba, 88.
44.
Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method, trans. Joel Weinsheimer and Donald G. Marshall, (New York: Continuum, 2006), 304–5.
45.
Truth and Method, 301.
46.
Ibid., 302.
47.
Ibid., 305.
48.
Geert Jan van Gelder, ‘Classical Arabic Literary Canon of Polite (and Impolite) Literature’ in Cultural Repertoires: Structure, Function, and Dynamics, ed. G. J. Dorleijn, Herman L. J. Vanstiphou (Leuven: Peeters Publishers, 2003), 47.
49.
Wolfhart Heinrichs, ‘The Classification of the Sciences and the Consolidation of Philology in Classical Islam’ in Centres of Learning: Learning and Location in Pre-modern Europe and the Near East, ed. J.W. Drijvers and A.A. MacDonald (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1995), 119–20.
50.
Roy P. Mottahedeh, ‘ʿAjāi ʾb in The Thousand and One Nights,’ in The Thousand and One Nights in Arabic Literature and Society, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian and Georges Sabagh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 29–39.
51.
See, for instance, al-Qazwı̄nı̄, Zakariyya b. Aḥmad, ‘Ajāʾib al-Makhlūqāt wa Gharā ʾib al-Mawjūdāt (Beirut: Dār al-Afāq al-Jadı̄da, 1977). See, also the illustrated folios of the aforementioned manuscript portraying various curious creatures. Several of these anecdotes and others had been an inspiration to the famous Sindbad travels. Ada Barbaro discusses in her book how modern Arabic Science Fiction rests on a continuum of pre-modern proto-type Arabic ʿaja ʾibı̄ fiction. See, Ada Barbaro, La fantascienza nella letteratura araba (Carroci, 2013). See, also, Arabic Literature (in English), ‘Science Fiction in Arabic: ‘It Was Not Born All of a Sudden”, September 30th 2013. Accessed July 7th, 2014. http://arablit.wordpress.com/2013/09/30/science-fiction-in-arabic-it-was-not-born-all-of-a-sudden/
52.
Mottahedeh, ‘ʿAjā ʾib in The Thousand and One Nights,’ 38.
53.
Eagleton, After Theory, (London and New York: Basic Books, 2004), 144.
54.
Ibid.
55.
Ibid., 145.
56.
Ibid., 154.
57.
Cf. Claudio Guillén, ‘Poetics as System,’ Comparative Literature 22, no.3 (1970): 193–222. Guillén defines the system’s operation from a literary history perspective when ‘no single element can be comprehended or evaluated correctly in isolation from the historical whole […] of which it is a part.’
58.
Stefan Sperl, ‘Islamic Spirituality and the Visual Arts’ in The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Islamic Spirituality, ed. Bruce B. Lawrence and Vincent Cornell. (Forthcoming, 2017).
For more on the term i ʿtidāl See, Christopher J. Bürgel, ‘Adab und i ʿtidāl in ar-Ruhāwı̄s Adab aṭ-Ṭabı̄b: Studie zur Bedeutungsgeschichte zweier Begriffe,’ Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft 117 (1967): 90–102.
59.
Mustansir Mir, ‘Mizān,’ Dictionary Qur’anic Terms and Concepts, (New York and London: Garland Publications Inc., 1987), 136.
60.
Fakhr al-Dı̄n al-Rāzı̄, Mafātı̄ḥ al-Ghayb (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya, 2000), 18: 68.
61.
al-Rāzı̄, Mafātı̄ḥ al-Ghayb, 18: 68.
62.
Ibid.
63.
al-Baghdādı̄ al-Khāzin, Lubāb al-Taʾwı̄l fı̄ Maʿānı̄ al-Tanzı̄l (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1979), 3:261.
64.
al-Zamaskharı̄, al-Kashshāf, ed. ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Mahdı̄ (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabı̄, n.d.), 2:416.
65.
al-Qushayrı̄, Laṭāi ʾif al-Ishārāt, ed. ʿAbd al-Laṭı̄f Ḥassan ʿAbd al-Raḥmān (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya, 2000), 2:65. Cf. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAli al-Jawzı̄, Zād al-Ması̄r fı̄ ʿIlm al-Tafsı̄r (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islāmı̄, 1404 A.H.), 4:179; cf. Muḥammad b. ʿAlı̄ al-Shawkānı̄, Fatḥ al-Qadı̄r (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, n.d.), 3:5.
66.
al-Thaʿlabı̄ al-Nisābūrı̄, al-Kashf wa l-Bayān, ed. Abı̄ Muḥammad bin ʿAshūr (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabı̄, 2002), 5:197.
67.
Cited in al-Baghāwı̄, Tafsı̄r al-Baghawı̄, ed. Khālid ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-ʿUkk (Beirut: Dār al-Maʿrifa, n.d.), 2:408.
68.
al-Shawkānı̄, Fatḥ al-Qadı̄r, 3:5.
69.
Muḥammad al-Ṭāhir bin ʿAshūr, al-Taḥrı̄r wa l-Tanwı̄r (Tunis: Dār Ṣaḥnūn, 1997), 1:120. For instance, the narrative style in narrating the conditions of both Paradise and Hell inhabitants and the representation of these conditions, dialogues, etc.
70.
See, Sperl, ‘Islamic Spirituality and the Visual Arts.’
71.
See, Aḥmad ʿĪsa, Tarı̄kh al-Bimāristānāt fı̄ l-Islām (Beirut: Dār al-Rāʾid al-ʿArabı̄, 1981), 102. 2nd edition.
72.
Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila, Maqama: A History of a Genre (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002), 94.
73.
al-Samarqandı̄, Tafsı̄r al-Samarqandı̄ [Baḥr al-ʿUlūm], ed. Maḥmūd Maṭarjı̄ (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, n.d.), 2: 178–9.
74.
al-Samarqandı̄, Tafsı̄r al-Samarqandı̄ [Baḥr al-ʿUlūm], 2:178.
75.
al-Rāzı̄, Mafātı̄ḥ al-Ghayb, 18:181.
76.
David Damrosch, ‘Foreword: Literary Criticism and the Qur’an,’ Journal of Qur’anic Studies 16.3 (2014): 6.
77.
See, George Makdisi, The Rise of Colleges and Institutions of Learning in Islam; Cf. van Gelder, ‘Classical Arabic Canon of Polite and (Impolite) Literature,’ 54.
78.
Stein Haugom Olsen, The End of Literary Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 2.
79.
An understanding of the term is best viewed through Mia Gerhardt’s explanation, which maintains that ‘Arabic popular literature of the early ʿAbbasid period drew its inspiration from three main sources: Persia, the Bedouin society of the Arabian Peninsula and the Baghdad of Harūn al-Rashı̄d (170–93/786–809) and al-Maʾmūn (198–218/813–33).’ Gerhardt, The Art of Storytelling, 121–30 cited in H.T. Norris, ‘Fables and Legends’ in Abbasid Belles-Lettres, ed. Julia Ashtiany et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 136. For more on this, see the aforementioned article and see also by the same author, ‘Fables and Legends in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Times’ in Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period, ed. A.F.L. Beeston et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 374–86.
80.
The term ‘canonical’ is used as a ‘collective term for the totality of the most highly esteemed works in a given culture.’ Trevor Ross, ‘Canon’ in Encyclopedia of Contemporary Literary Theory (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 514–16.
81.
Darío Villanueva, ‘Possibilities and Limits of Comparative Literature Today,’ Comparative Literature and Culture 13, no. 5 (2011): <http://dx.doi.org/10.7771/1481-4374.1915>
82.
Pollock, ‘Future Philology? The Fate of a Soft Science in a Hard World,’ 934.
83.
Ibid.
84.
See, Emily Apter, Against World Literature: On the Politics of Untranslatability (London and New York: Verso, 2013).
85.
See, Barbara Cassin, ed. A Dictionary of Untranslatables: A Philosophical Lexicon (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014).
86.
Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), 170. 4th edition.
87.
See Gregor Schoeler, The Genesis of Literature in Islam, trans. Shawkat M. Toorawa (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010), 85.
88.
See, John Alfred Haywood, Arabic Lexicography: its history, and its place in the general history of lexicography, (Leiden: Brill, 1960), 13ff. For more on the Qur’an’s influence on literary activity and literary criticism, See, Muḥammad Zaghlūl Sallām, Athar al-Qur ʾān fı̄ Ṭaṭawwur al-Naqd al-ʿArabı̄ ilā Ākhir al-Qarn al-Rābi ʿ al-Hijrı̄ (Cairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif, 1952).
89.
al-Farāhı̄dı̄, Kitāb al- ʿAyn, ed. Mahdı̄ al-Makhzūmı̄ and Ibrāhı̄m al-Sāmarrāʾı̄ (Baghdad: Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa l-Iʿlām, 1980), 3:53–4.
90.
Ibn Fāris, Mujmal al-Lugha, ed. Hādı̄ Ḥasan Ḥammūdı̄ (Kuwait: Al-Munaẓẓama al-ʿArabiyya li-l-Tarbiya wa l-Thaqāfa wa l- ʿUlūm, 1985), 3:138.
91.
al-Zamakhsharı̄, Asās al-Balāgha (Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1979), 488.
92.
al-Ṣaghānı̄, al-Takmila wa l-Dhayl wa l-Ṣila li-Kitāb Tāj al-Lugha wa Ṣiḥāḥ al- ʿArabiyya, ed. ʿAbd al-ʿAlı̄m al-Ṭahāwı̄ (Cairo: Maṭbaʿat dār al-Kutub, 1970–1977), 2:80–81.
93.
Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al- ʿArab (Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1997), 5:187.
94.
This is a common invective in the Classical Arabic language and this example is attributed to Jarı̄r ‘qabbaḥa al-ilāha wujūha Taghlib kullamā sabbaḥa al-ḥajı̄ju wa kabbarū takbı̄ra’ [May God banish/uglify the faces of the tribe of Taghlib every time the pilgrims praise and glorify God] and is mentioned in Tafsı̄r Fatḥ al-Qadı̄r by al-Shawkānı̄ for sūrat al-Aʿlā (87: 1). See, al-Shawkānı̄, Fatḥ al-Qadı̄r, 5:423.
95.
Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al- ʿArab, 5:187–88.
96.
al-Fı̄rūzābādı̄, al-Qāmūs al-Muḥı̄ṭ, ed. Naṣr al-Ḥūrı̄nı̄ (Būlāq: n.p., 1884–1885), 1:239.
97.
ʿAbd Allāh Ibn al-ʿAbbās (d. 68/687–8) a contemporary of the Prophet Muḥammad was known for his extensive knowledge and is considered the founder of Qur’anic exegesis. L. Veccia Vaglieri, ‘Ibn ʿAbbās’ in EI ².
98.
al-Zabı̄dı̄, Tāj al-ʿArūs, ed. ʿAbd al-Sattār Aḥmad Farrāj (Kuwait: al-Turāth al-ʿArabı̄, 1965–2001), 4: 162–63.
99.
Bustānı̄, Muḥı̄ṭ al-Muḥı̄ṭ (Beirut: n.p., 1867–1870), 2:1652.
100.
al-Ṭabarı̄, Jāmi ʿ al-Bayān ʿan Taʾwı̄l ayy al-Qur ʾān (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1405 A.H.), 20:79.
101.
al-Zamakhsharı̄, al-Kashshāf, 3:421.
102.
al-Rāzı̄, Mafātı̄ḥ al-Ghayb, 24:218.
103.
Ibid.
104.
al-Qurṭubı̄, al-Jāmi ʿ li-Aḥkām al-Qur ʾān (Cairo: Dār al-Shaʿb, n.d.), 13:290.
105.
al-Ṭabarsı̄, Majmaʿ al-Bayān fı̄ Tafsı̄r al-Qur ʾān, ed. Bāsim al-Rasūlı̄ al-Maḥallātı̄ (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabı̄, n.d.), 7: 255.
106.
al-Sharı̄f al-Jurjānı̄, Muʿjam al-Taʿrifāt, ed. Muḥammad Ṣiddı̄q al-Minshāwı̄ (Cairo: Dār al-Faḍı̄la, n.d.), 27.
107.
Ibid.
108.
Ibid.
109.
Ibid., 184.
110.
Ibid.,184–85.
111.
Ibid., 89.
112.
Ibid. According to al-Jurjānı̄, the act of a junior forgiving his/her superior does not fall under ‘ghafar lahā/lahu.’
113.
Ibid., 58.
114.
Ibid., 178.
115.
Ibid.,144.
116.
al-wujūh wa l-naẓā ʾir (lit. faces and kindreds) means that a single word may be mentioned several times in the Qur’an but it bears a different meaning according to the context. And so the ‘faces’ refer to the all meanings in a single context. For example, the word ‘aya’ occurs many times but it sometimes mean a ‘verse’ from the Qur’an, sometimes a ‘proof’, sometimes a ‘miracle’, sometimes a ‘sign’, …etc. according to the context. For more, see, Abū-Hilāl al-ʿAskarı̄, al-Wujūh wa l-Naẓāʾir; ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAlı̄ Ibn al-Jawzı̄, Muntakhab Qurrat ʿUyūn al-Nawāẓir fı̄ l-Wujūh wa l-Naẓāir fı̄ l-Qurān al-Karı̄m, to mention a few.
117.
van Gelder, ‘Classical Arabic Literary Canon of Polite (and Impolite) Literature,’ 47.
118.
Damrosch, ‘Foreword: Literary Criticism and the Qur’an,’ 4.
119.
Mahmoud M. Ayoub, ‘Literary Exegesis of the Qur’ān: The Case of al-Sharı̄f al-Raḍı̄’ in Literary Structures of Religious Meaning in the Qur’an, ed. Issa J. Boullata, (Richmond: Curzon, 2000), 292.
120.
See, for example, the discussions of some these imitations and self-identified challenges in al-Jurjānı̄’s, al-Bāqillānı̄’s as well as al-Rummānı̄’s treatises on the inimitability of the Qur’an and their commentaries on them. Thalāth Rasā ʾil fı̄ I ʿjāz al-Qur ʾān, ed. Muḥammad Khalafallah Aḥmad and Muḥammad Zaghlūl Sallām (Cairo: Dār al-Maʿārif, 1976).
121.
van Gelder, ‘Classical Arabic Canon…,’ 48.
122.
Alberto Manguel, ‘One Thousand and One Years of Censorship—The Arabian Nights: A Companion by Robert Irwin.’ Index on Censorship 23, nos. 1–2 (1994): 182–85 Review.
123.
Lenn E. Goodman,‘Hamadhānı̄, Schadenfreude and Salvation Through Sin,’ Journal of Arabic Literature 19, no. 1 (1988): 27–39.
124.
Aamir R. Mufti, ‘Critical Secularism: A Reintroduction for Perilous Times,’ boundary 2 31 no. 2 (2004): 2–3.

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Sarah R. bin Tyeer

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bin Tyeer, S.R. (2016). Introduction. In: The Qur’an and the Aesthetics of Premodern Arabic Prose. Literatures and Cultures of the Islamic World. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59875-2_1

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