Abstract
This chapter examines key factors behind extraordinary changes in maritime security in the Arctic, in particular the transformation of the maritime economy and the Arctic as a resource and a sea line of communication, development of the Arctic legal regime, as well as the evolving geopolitical environment, driving top-down structural change in missions and configuration of the Arctic states’ armed forces. It explores the shifting balance of power in the region and its impact on international order at sea in the Arctic by examining three cases of regional policy responses: by Russia, as the Arctic “superpower”, the United States, as the global great power in the region, and Norway, as a small yet influential Arctic player. In conclusion, it assesses challenges and threats to maritime security in the ice-diminished Arctic.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Bibliography
Asia Policy. 2014. Roundtable: Polar Pursuits: Asia Engages the Arctic, July 2014: 18.
Barents Observer (2010). Large NATO exercise starts in Northern Norway, http://barentsobserver.com/en/sections/articles/large-nato-exercise-starts-northern-norway 18 February 2010.
Barents Observer (2014). Exercise Cold Response in final phase, http://barentsobserver.com/en/sections/articles/large-nato-exercise-starts-northern-norway. 21 March 2014.
Bekkevold, Jo Inge, and Kristine Offerdal. 2015. Norway’s High North Policy and New Asian Stakeholders. In Arctic: Commerce, Governance and Policy, eds. Uttam Sinha and Jo Inge Bekkevold. London: Routledge.
Børrensen, Jacob, Gullow Gjeseth, and Rolf Tamnes. 2004. Norsk forsvarshistorie, bd. 5: 1970–2000, Eide Forlag.
Brubaker, Douglas R., and Willy Østreng. 1999. The Northern Sea Route Regime: Exquisite Superpower Subterfuge? Ocean Development & International Law 30(4): 299–331, October–December.
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. 2011. The National Military Strategy of the United States of America, Redefining America’s Military Leadership, Washington, DC. http://mercury.ethz.ch/serviceengine/Files/ISN/154942/ipublicationdocument_singledocument/4839f9fe-388c-47c2-a5bf-61cce5eb0aa8/en/US+National+Military+Strategy+2011.pdf
CLCS. 2015. Partial Revised Submission by the Russian Federation to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf in the respect of the Continental Shelf of the Russian Federation in the Arctic Ocean. Available at the CLCS’ homepage http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/rus01_rev15/2015_08_03_Exec_Summary_English.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
Department of Defense. 2010. Quadrennial Defense Review Report, Department of Defense, Washington, DC. http://www.comw.org/qdr/fulltext/1002QDR2010.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
Department of the Navy. 2010. Strategic Objectives for the U.S. Navy in the Arctic Region, Chief of Naval Operations, 21 May 2010. http://greenfleet.dodlive.mil/files/2010/09/US-Navy-Arctic-Strategic-Objectives-21-May-2010.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2014. U.S. Navy Arctic Roadmap 2014–2030, Navy Task Force Climate Change, February 2014. http://www.navy.mil/ docs/USN_arctic_roadmap.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
Eni Norge. 2015. Eni Norges feltutbyggingeor, Eni Norge’s homepage. http://www.eninorge.com/no/Feltutbygging/, accessed 15 October 2015.
European Union. 2010. Legal aspects of Arctic Shipping. Summary Report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
Grønstad Friisk, Anders. 2014. Arctic Coastal State Jurisdiction in an Era of Climate Change. Vessel-Source Oil Pollution and International Shipping in Norwegian and Russian Arctic Waters, FNI Report, 12/2014.
Hilde, Paal Sigurd. 2013. The ”New” Arctic—The Military Dimension. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 15(2): 130–153.
Hilde, Paal Sigurd, and Helene Widerberg. 2010. NATOs nye strategiske konsept og Norge. Norsk Militært Tidsskrift, Oslo, no. 4-2010.
———. 2014. Norway and NATO—the Act of Balancing. In Common or Divided Security? German and Norwegian Perspectives on Euro-Atlantic Security, eds. Robin Allers, Carlo Masala, and Rolf Tamnes. Peter Lang.
Interfaks. 2012. Minoborony otpravljaet MiG-31 na Novuju Zemlju, 25 September.
International Maritime Organization. 2010. Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Polar Waters, 2010 Edition, London. IMO’s homepage http://www.imo.org/Publications/Documents/Attachments/Pages%20from%20E190E.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2014. IMO adopts mandatory Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, Briefing: 38, 21 November. IMO’s homepage http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/Pages/38-nmsc94polar.aspx#.VQIN9ocgmQw, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2015. Shipping in Polar Waters. IMO’s homepage http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/HotTopics/polar/Pages/default.aspx, accessed 15 October 2015.
Izvestiya. 2012. ‘Rossiya zadelaet arkticheskie ’dyry, 16 April.
Jørgensen, Jørgen Holten. 2003. Russisk Svalbard-politikk. Eksterne og interne forklaringsfaktorer, Hovedoppgave, Universitetet i Oslo, 89–91.
Karlsbakk, Jonas. 2010. Russia Ready for Joint Management of the Barents Sea. Barents Observer, 30 August.
Kerry, John. 2014. Press statement by John Kerry, Secretary of State, U.S. Department of State Washington, DC, July 16. http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2014/07/229317.htm, accessed 15 October 2015.
Korolev, Vladimir. 2014. Voenno-morskaya deyatel’nost’ Rossii v Arktike. Zashchita i bezopasnost 1(68): 24–26.
Krivyakina, Elena. 2010. Otstupat’ Rossii nekuda, pozadi—Arktika. Komsomol’skaya pravda, 19 March.
Lasserre, Frédéric. 2009. High North Shipping. Myths and Realities. In Security Prospects in the High North. Geostrategic Thaw or Freeze? eds. S.G. Holtsmark and B.A. Smith-Windsor, Forum Paper no. 7, 179–199. Rome: NATO Defense College.
Lipschutz, Kari. 2011. Brazil’s Maritime Claim: A Threat to UNCLOS? Yale Journal of International Affairs, March 2011.
Medvedev, Dmitrii. 2010. Vystuplenie na zasedanii Soveta Bezopasnosti po voprosam razvitiya sudostroeniya, June 9. Available at the Kremlin’s homepage http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/8000, accessed 15 October 2015.
Moe, Arild. 2013. The Future of Arctic Oil and Gas Development—Russian and Norwegian Perspectives. In The Arctic in World Affairs—A North Pacific Dialogue on the Future of the Arctic, eds. Oran R. Young, Jong Deog Kim, and Yoon Hyung Kim, 169–176. Seoul, Honolulu: Korea Maritime Institute/East-West Center.
———. 2014. The Northern Sea Route: Smooth Sailing Ahead? Strategic Analysis 38: 6.
Moe, Arild, Fjærtoft Daniel, and Øverland Indra. 2011. Space and Timing: Why was the Barents Sea Delimitation Dispute Resolved in 2010? Polar Geography 34(3): 145–162.
Mukhin, Vladimir. 2015. Ministerstvo oborony Rossii beret Arktiku pod osobyj kontrol. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 20 January.
Nezavisimaya gazeta. 2014. Rossija postroit v Arktike 13 aerodromov i radiolokatsionnye punkty, 2 October.
Northern Sea Route Administration. Razresheniya na plavanie sudna v akvatorii Severnogo morskogo puti. Northern Sea Route Administration’s homepage, http://www.nsra.ru/ru/razresheniya/, accessed 15 October 2015
Norwegian Ministry of Defence. 2011. Prop. 1 S (2011–2012), Proposisjon til Stortinget (forslag til stortingsvedtak). For budjsettåret 2012, 16 September 2011. http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/fd/dok/regpubl/prop/2011-2012/prop-1-s-20112012.html?id=657280, accessed 15 October 2015.
Norwegian Joint Headquarters Public Affairs Office (2012), Press release: Exercise Cold Response 2012, http://www.norge.fi/PageFiles/591341/IEPR%20-%20Exercise%20Cold%20Response%202012.pdf
———. 2012. St. prp. nr. 73 S (2011–2012), Et Forsvar for vår tid. https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/prop-73-s-20112012/id676029/, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2014. Norway Suspends Bilateral Military Activities with Russia Until the End of 2015. Press release, 12 December. https://www.regjeringen.no/en/aktuelt/Norway-suspends-bilateral-military-activities-with-Russia-in-2015/id2351002, accessed 15 October 2015.
Norwegian Ministry of Defense. 2015. Et felles løft, Ekspertgruppen for forsvaret av Norge. Available at the Norwegian Government’ homepage https://blogg.regjeringen.no/annedivi/files/2015/03/2015-04-27-Et-Felles-L%C3%B8ft webversjon.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2006. The Norwegian Government’s Strategy for the High North, December 2006. https://www.regjeringen.no/globalassets/upload/Ud/Vedlegg/strategien.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2009. New Building Blocks in the North, April 2009. https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/north_blocks/id548803/, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2011. The High North—Visions and Strategies, 2011 The Norwegian Government’s white paper on the High North. https://www.regjeringen.no/globalassets/upload/ud/vedlegg/nordomradene/ud_nordomrodene_innmat_en_web.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015
Novatek. 2015. Yamal LNG Project. Novatek’s homepage, http://www.novatek.ru/en/business/yamal-lng/, accessed 15 October 2015.
NSR Information Office. 2013. The Tanker “Nordvik” Left the NSR Water Area. Northern Sea Route Information Office, 18 September. http://www.arctic-lio.com/node/206, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2014. List of NSR Transit Voyages in 2014 Navigational Season. NSR Information Office’ homepage, http://www.arctic-lio.com/docs/nsr/transits/Transits_2014.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2015. Transit Statistics. NSR Information Office’ homepage, http://www.arctic-lio.com/nsr_transits, accessed 15 October 2015.
Østreng, Willy, 1999, Historical and geographical context of the Northern Sea Route”, In: The natural and societal challenges of the Northern Sea Route A reference work, ed. by Willy Østreng, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
O’Rourke, Ronald. 2011. Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress. Congressional Research Service, 2011.
Petrov, Ivan. 2014. Kurs na arktiku. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 27 November.
President of Russia. 2012. O vniesenii izmenenii v otdel’nye zakonodate’nye akty Rossiiskoi Federatsii v chasti gosudarstvennogo regulirovaniya torgovogo moreplavaniya v akvatorii Severnogo morskogo puti, Law No. 132, 28 July 2012. Available at the homepage of the President of Russia, http://news.kremlin.ru/acts, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2014. Rasshirennoe zasedanie kollegii Ministerstva oborony, 19 December, the President of Russia’s homepage, http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/47257, accessed 15 October 2015.
Pronedra. 2015a. Khloponin: RF ne smozhet osvaivat’ shel’f bez importnoi tekhniki, 23 September. http://pronedra.ru/oil/2015/09/23/rossiya-shelify/, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2015b. Minprirody: obiomy bureniya na shel’fe upali na 50%, 23 October.http://pronedra.ru/oil/2015/10/23/burenie-na-shelife/, accessed 24 October 2015.
Putin, Vladimir. 2013. Vystuplenie na plenarnom zasedanii III Mezhdunarodnogo arkticheskogo foruma Arktika—territoriya dialoga, 25 September. The President of Russia’s homepage, http://kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/19281, accessed 15 October 2015.
Ria novosti. 2014. In 2014 Russia Will Station Troops All Over the Arctic Region. Ria novosti, October 2014.
Riste, Olav. 2005. Norway’s Foreign Relations. A History, Universitetsforlaget 2005.
Rosneft. 2013. ‘Rosneft’ i EksonMobil rasshoiryayut strategicheskoe sotrudnichestvo’, Press release, 13 January 2013. http://www.rosneft.ru/news/pressrelease/130220133.html, accessed 15 October 2015.
Russia Today. 2012a. Russia to Grant Unprecedented Tax Cuts on Arctic Exploration, 24 December 2012.
———. 2012b. Too Expensive: Gazprom Puts Shtokman on Hold, 29 August 2012. http://rt.com/business/shtokman-gas-gazprom-857/, accessed 15 October 2015.
Russian Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology. 2015. Rossmotrenie zayavki Rossiiskoi Federatsii v Komissiyu OON na rasshirenie continental’nogo shel’fa v Severnom Ledovitom okeane zaplanirovano na sleduyushchem plenarnom zasedanii, 5 August. Available at the Ministry’s homepage, http://www.mnr.gov.ru/news/detail.php?ID=141707&sphrase_id=643395, accessed 15 October 2015.
Russian Ministry of Transportation. 2013. Pravila plavaniya v akvatorii Cevernogo morskogo puti, Moscow, 17 January 2013. Available at the homepage http://www.mintrans.ru/documents/detail.php?ELEMENT_ID=19481, accessed 15 October 2015.
Security Council of the Russian Federation. 2008. Osnovy gosudarstvennoi politiki Rossiiskoi Federatsii v Arktike na period do 2020 goda i dal’neishuyu perspektivu, 18 September 2008, Security Council of the Russian Federation. http://www.scrf.gov.ru/documents/15/98.html, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2009. Pres-reliz po Osnovam gosudarstvennoi politiki Rossiiskoi Federatsii v Arktike na period do 2020 goda i dalneishuyu perspektivu, Moskva, 27 March. http://www.scrf.gov.ru/news/421.html, accessed 15 October 2015.
Shell. 2015. How We Operate in the Arctic. Shell Global’s homepage, http://www.shell.com/global/future-energy/arctic/shell-in-the-arctic.html, accessed 15 October 2015.
Sidorov, Anatolii, and Kermen Basangov. 2014. V Arktike budet zharko. Voenno-promyshlennyi kurer, 21 July.
Søreide, Ine Eriksen. 2015. Keynote Speech “One for All, All for One” at Institute for Defence Studies, 17 March. Available at the homepage of the Norwegian Ministry of Defense, https://www.regjeringen.no/no/aktuelt/speech-by-ine-eriksen-soreide-one-for-all-all-for-one/id2401315/, accessed 15 October 2015.
Statoil. 2015a. Johan Castberg, Statoil’s homepage. http://www.statoil.com/en/ouroperations/futurevolumes/projectdevelopment/pages/skrugard.aspx, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2015b. New timeline for Johan Castberg and Snorre 2040, Press release, 6 March 2015. http://www.statoil.com/en/NewsAndMedia/News/2015/Pages/06Mar_Castberg_Snorre.aspx, accessed 15 October 2015.
Stevens, Paul. 2010. The “Shale Gas Revolution”: Hype and Reality. Chatham House Report, 1 September 2010. http://www.chathamhouse.org/publications/papers/view/178865#sthash.Higgio8a.dpuf, accessed 15 October 2015.
Stewen, Catarina. 2013. Finnish Icebreakers Clear a Polar Path. This is Finland, homepage of the Finland Promotion Board, Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, http://finland.fi/Public/default.aspx?contentid=295033&culture=en-US&nodeid=37605, accessed 15 October 2015.
Stokke, Olav Schram. 2011. Asian Stakes and Arctic Governance. In Arctic: Commerce, Governance and Policy, eds. Uttam Kumar Sinha and Jo Inge Bekkevold. London: Routledge.
———. 2014. Environmental Security in the Arctic: The Case for Multilevel Governance. International Journal 66: 835–848.
Stortinget. 2014. ‘En varig endring i forholdet til Russland’, a report from a roudtable at the Nowegian Parliament on Nordic Defense Cooperaion with Defense Minister Ine Eriksen Søreide. fra https://www.stortinget.no/no/Hva-skjer-pa-Stortinget/Nyhetsarkiv/Hva-skjer-nyheter/2014-2015/–En-varig-endring-i-forholdet-til-Russland/
Tamnes, Rolf. 2014. Norwegian Foreign and Security Policy: From the Arctic Frontier to the Afghan Battlefield. In Common or Divided Security? German and Norwegian Perspectives on Euro-Atlantic Security, eds. R. Allers, C. Masala, and R. Tamnes, 47–67. Peter Lang Publishing.
Tamnes, Rolf, and Knut Einar Eriksen. 1999. Norge og NATO under den kalde krigen, In NATO 50 år. Norsk sikkerhetspolitikk med NATO gjennom 50 år, Den Norske atlanterhavskomité. http://www.atlanterhavskomiteen.no/files/atlanterhavskomiteen.no/Tema/50aar/1a.htm, accessed 15 October 2015.
Tass. 2014a. Putin Suggests Creating Unified System of Naval Bases in Russia’s Arctic, 22 April.
———. 2014b. Upgraded MiG-31 Interceptors to Cover Russia’s Arctic, Other Strategic Directions—Source, 30 December.
———. 2015. Arctic Troops Arrive as Russia Masses United Northern Command, 13 January.
The Arctic Council. 2011. Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic, AC Archive Home. https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/handle/11374/530, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2013. Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution, Preparedness and Response in the Arctic. AC Archive Home, https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/handle/11374/1260, accessed 15 October 2015.
The Council of the Russian Federation. 2013. O Federal’nom zakone “O vnesenii izmenenii v chasti pervuyu i vtoruyu Nalogovogo kodeksa Rossiiskoi Federatsii i otdel’nye zakonodatel’nye akty Rossiiskoi Federacii v svyazi s osushchestvleniem mer nalogovogo i tamozhenno-tarifnogo stimulirovaniya deyatel’nosti po dobyche uglevodorodnogo syr’ya na kontinental’nom shel’fe Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 25 September 2013. The Council’s homepage, http://council.gov.ru/activity/legislation/decisions/35312, accessed 15 October 2015.
The Governor of Svalbard. 2012. Treaty between Norway, The United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Spitsbergen signed in Paris 9th February 1920. Available at the Governor’s homepage http://sysselmannen.no/Documents/Sysselmannen_dok/English/Legacy/The_Svalbard_Treaty_9ssFy.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
The Russian Government. 2013. Strategiya razvitiya Arkticheskoi zony Rossiiskoi Federatsii i obespecheniya natsional’noi bezopasnosti na period do 2020 goda, 20 February 2013. Available at the homepage of the Ministry of Economic Development of the Murmansk Oblast, http://minec.gov-murman.ru/files/Strategy_azrf.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2015. Outer Limits of the Continental Shelf beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the Baselines: Submissions to the Commission: Partial Revised Submission by the Russian Federation, Russian Federation. Available at the CLCS’ homepage http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submission_rus_rev1.htm, accessed 15 October 2015.
The White House. 2009. The National Security Presidential Directive and Homeland Security Presidential Directive, Arctic region policy, 9 January 2009. Available at the White House archives homepage http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2009/01/20090112-3.html, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2013. National Strategy for the Arctic Region, May 2013. http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/nat_arctic_strategy.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
U.N. Office of Legal Affairs. 1998. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A Historical Perspective), The Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs. Available at the Division’s homepage http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_historical_perspective.htm, accessed 15 October 2015.
U.S. Department of Defense. 2011. Report to Congress on Arctic Operations and the Northwest Passage, OUSD (Policy), May 2011. http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/Tab_A_Arctic_Report_Public.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
U.S. Coast Guard. 2013a. Arctic Strategy, May 2013. http://www.uscg.mil/seniorleadership/DOCS/CG_Arctic_Strategy.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2013b. Polar Icebreaker, Acquisition Directorate, 11 September. http://www.uscg.mil/hq/cg9/icebreaker, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2015. Fiscal Year 2016 Congressional Justification. http://www.uscg.mil/budget/ docs/USCG_FY2016_Congressional_Justification.pdf, accessed 15 October 2015.
U.S. Geological Survey. 2000. The US Geological Survey’s World Petroleum Assessment 2000—Description and Results, US Department of the Interior. http://pubs.usgs.gov/dds/dds-060/, accessed 15 October 2015.
———. 2008. Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal: Estimates of Undiscovered Oil and Gas North of the Arctic Circle, U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet, July 2008. http://energy.usgs.gov/RegionalStudies/Arctic.aspx, accessed 15 October 2015.
Vedomosti. 2015. “Rosneft” prosit perenesti razrabotku shel’fa, 19 February.
Vzglyad. 2014. Bondarev: VVC Rossii ne vidyat realnykh sopernikov v Arktike, 9 August.
Zhdannikov, D., and V. Soldatkin 2013. Exclusive: Russia Plans $25–$30 Billion Oil-for-Loans Deal with China. Reuters, 13 February 2013.
Zysk, Katarzyna. 2010. Russia’s Arctic Strategy: Ambitions and Constraints, Joint Force Quarterly, Issue 57, 2nd Quarter 2010, 103–110. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press.
Zysk, Katarzyna og David W. Titley, 2015. Signal, Noise and Swans in Today’s Arctic. The SAIS Review of International Affairs 35(1): 169–181.
———. 2015a. Mellom fredsretorikk og militær opprustning: Russlands sikkerhetspolitiske og militære atferd i nordområdene. In Norge og Russland—sikkerhetspolitiske utfordringer i nordområdene, eds. A. Kjølberg and T. Heier, 85–95. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
———. 2015b. Russia Turns North, Again: Interests, Policies and the Search for Coherence. In Handbook of the Politics of the Arctic, eds. Geir Hønneland and Leif Christian, 437–461. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 2016 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Zysk, K. (2016). Maritime Security and International Order at Sea in the Arctic Ocean. In: Bekkevold, J., Till, G. (eds) International Order at Sea. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58663-6_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58663-6_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-58662-9
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-58663-6
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)