Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Online Misogyny, Harassment and Hate Crimes

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Sexual Violence in a Digital Age

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Cybercrime and Cybersecurity ((PSCYBER))

Abstract

Online sexual harassment is a persistent and pervasive problem that inhibits online equality and freedom. It includes offensive, humiliating or intimidating conduct that is unwanted or unwelcome and of a sexual nature. Given the more recent growth in digital technologies and the ways in which motivated individuals use those technologies as a tool of oppression and abuse, increasing media and scholarly attention has been given more recently to online sexual harassment, including unwanted sexual attention, gender-based hate speech, cyberstalking, image-based harassment and rape threats. This chapter explores the nature, extent and scope of online sexual harassment. We argue that the sheer nature and scope of online sexual harassment is strongly indicative of a broader pattern of gender inequality, misogyny and sex discrimination, and the persistent acceptance and tolerance of rape-supportive attitudes and beliefs. These behaviours are embedded in problematic gendered stereotypes that are in turn enacted and performed in online spaces. We thus argue that online sexual harassment is a manifestation of gender power relations and hegemonic masculine entitlement, constituting a form of social control and regulation that inhibits the exercise of digital citizenship, equality and freedom, and in turn serves to reinforce heterosexual and patriarchal norms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 24.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 32.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Alexy, E. M., Burgess, A. W., Baker, T., & Smoyak, S. A. (2005). Perceptions of cyberstalking among college students. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 5(3), 279–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arvey, R. D., & Cavanaugh, M. A. (1995). Using surveys to assess the prevalence of sexual harassment: Some methodological problems. Journal of Social Issues, 51(1), 39–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Australian Human Rights Commission. (2012). Working without fear: Results of the Sexual Harassment National Telephone Survey. Sydney: Australian Human Rights Commission.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ballard, M. E., & Welch, K. M. (2015). Virtual warfare cyberbullying and cyber-victimization in MMOG Play. Games and Culture. doi:10.1177/1555412015592473.

  • Barak, A. (2005). Sexual harassment on the Internet. Social Science Computer Review, 23(1), 77–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, J., Norrie, R., Patel, S. Rumpel, R., & Wibberley, S. (2014). Misogyny on Twitter. Demos. Retrieved from http://www.demos.co.uk/files/MISOGYNY_ON_TWITTER.pdf

  • Bartow, A. (2009). Internet defamation as profit center: The monetization of online harassment. Harvard Journal of Law and Gender, 32(2), 383–429.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumgartner, S. E., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2010). Unwanted online sexual solicitation and risky sexual online behavior across the lifespan. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31(6), 439–447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, S. (2015, August 13). Police investigate ‘first cyber-flashing’ case. BBC News. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-33889225

  • Bennett, D. C., Guran, E. L., Ramos, M. C., & Margolin, G. (2011). College students’ electronic victimization in friendships and dating relationships: Anticipated distress and associations with risky behaviors. Violence and Victims, 26(4), 410–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borrajo, E., Gámez-Guadix, M., & Calvete, E. (2015). Cyber dating abuse: Prevalence, context, and relationship with offline dating aggression. Psychological Reports, 116(2), 565–585.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bossler, A. M., Holt, T. J., & May, D. C. (2012). Predicting online harassment victimization among a juvenile population. Youth & Society, 44(4), 500–523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, S. C., Wallen, M., Vail-Smith, K., & Knox, D. (2011). Using technology to control intimate partners: An exploratory study of college undergraduates. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(3), 1162–1167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butler, J. (2011). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavezza, C., & McEwan, T. E. (2014). Cyberstalking versus off-line stalking in a forensic sample. Psychology, Crime & Law, 20(10), 955–970.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chess, S., & Shaw, A. (2015). A conspiracy of fishes, or, how we learned to stop worrying about #GamerGate and embrace hegemonic masculinity. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 59(1), 208–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Citron, D. K. (2009). Cyber civil rights. Boston University Law Review, 89(1), 61–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Citron, D. K. (2014). Hate crimes in cyberspace. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, K. K. (2015). ‘It’s like she’s eager to be verbally abused’: Twitter, trolls, and (en)gendering disciplinary rhetoric. Feminist Media Studies, 15(2), 356–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R. W. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person and sexual politics. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity rethinking the concept. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–859.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, H. (2016, July 20). Brighton Grammar expels students who created vile Instagram account. The Age. Retrieved from http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/brighton-grammar-expels-students-who-created-vile-instagram-account-20160720-gq9oxj.html

  • Coyne, I., Chesney, T., Logan, B., & Madden, N. (2009). Griefing in a virtual community: An exploratory survey of second life residents. Journal of Psychology, 217(4), 214–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 1241–1299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darvell, M. J., Walsh, S. P., & White, K. M. (2011). Facebook tells me so: Applying the theory of planned behavior to understand partner-monitoring behavior on Facebook. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14(12), 717–722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeKeseredy, W. S., & Olsson, P. (2011). Adult pornography, male peer support, and violence against women: The contribution of the ‘dark side’ of the Internet. In M. Vargas Martin, M. Garcia-Ruiz, & A. Edwards (Eds.), Technology for facilitating humanity and combating social deviations: Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 34–50). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delgado, R. (1982). Words that wound: A tort action for racial insults, epithets, and name-calling. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 17(1), 133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dreßing, H., Bailer, J., Anders, A., Wagner, H., & Gallas, C. (2014). Cyberstalking in a large sample of social network users: Prevalence, characteristics, and impact upon victims. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(2), 61–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drouin, M., Ross, J., & Tobin, E. (2015). Sexting: A new digital vehicle for intimate partner aggression? Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 197–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drouin, M., & Tobin, E. (2014). Unwanted but consensual sexting among young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 412–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duggan, M. (2014). Online harassment: Summary of findings. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/10/22/online-harassment/

  • Elder, J. (2016, April 17). Psychologists and women ask why men send ‘dick pics.’ The Canberra Times. Retrieved from http://www.canberratimes.com.au/act-news/psychologists-and-women-ask-why-men-send-dick-pics-20160416-go80cp.html

  • Ellison, N., Heino, R., & Gibbs, J. (2006). Managing impressions online: Self-presentation processes in the online dating environment. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(2), 415–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Englander, E. (2015). Coerced sexting and revenge porn among teens. Bullying, Teen Aggression & Social Media, 1(2), 19–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2016). Facts about sexual harassment. Retrieved from https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/publications/fs-sex.cfm

  • Equality and Human Rights Commission. (2016). What is harassment? Equality and human rights commission. Retrieved from https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/advice-and-guidance/what-harassment#h1

  • Esposito, B. (2016, April 16). Facebook is struggling to control groups of men sharing revenge porn. BuzzFeed. Retrieved from https://www.buzzfeed.com/bradesposito/melbournes-mens-society?utm_term=.hhzj565KE#.wwbNd9dAB

  • Finn, J. (2004). A survey of online harassment at a university campus. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(4), 468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, L. F. (1996). Sexual harassment: The definition and measurement of a construct. Ivory Power: Sexual Harassment on Campus, 21(22), 24–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, J., & Tang, W. Y. (2014). Sexism in online video games: The role of conformity to masculine norms and social dominance orientation. Computers in Human Behavior, 33, 314–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, J., & Tang, W. Y. (2016). Women’s experiences with general and sexual harassment in online video games: Rumination, organizational responsiveness, withdrawal, and coping strategies. New Media & Society. doi:10.1177/1461444816635778.

  • Franke, K. M. (1997). What’s wrong with sexual harassment? Stanford Law Review, 49(4), 691–772.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franks, M. A. (2012). Sexual harassment 2.0. Maryland Law Review, 71(3), 655–704.

    Google Scholar 

  • Funnell, N. (2016, July 20). ANU college students expelled over creepy Facebook page. News.com.au . Retrieved from http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/real-life/news-life/canberra-college-students-expelled-over-creepy-facebook-page/news-story/f6a7e3e08860dcd22ccd542e4d6d74d1

  • Gámez-Guadix, M., Almendros, C., Borrajo, E., & Calvete, E. (2015). Prevalence and association of sexting and online sexual victimization among Spanish adults. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 12(2), 145–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gleeson H. (2016, July 9). Why do men send unsolicited dick pics? ABC News. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-07-09/why-men-send-unsolicited-dick-pics/7540904

  • Goodson, P., McCormick, D., & Evans, A. (2001). Searching for sexually explicit materials on the Internet: An exploratory study of college students’ behavior and attitudes. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 30(2), 101–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, K. L. (2012). Intersecting oppressions and online communities: Examining the experiences of women of colour in Xbox live. Information, Communication & Society, 15(3), 411–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, M., Bobrowicz, A., & Ang, C. S. (2015). The lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender community online: Discussions of bullying and self-disclosure in YouTube videos. Behaviour & Information Technology, 34(7), 704–712.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heberele, R., & Grace, V. (2009). Theorizing sexual violence. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heise, L. L. (1998). Violence against women an integrated, ecological framework. Violence Against Women, 4(3), 262–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henry, N. (2016). Theorizing wartime rape: Deconstructing gender, sexuality, and violence. Gender & Society, 30(1), 44–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, N., & Powell, A. (2016a). Sexual violence in the digital age: The scope and limits of criminal law. Social & Legal Studies, 25(4), 397–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henry, N., & Powell, A. (2016b). Technology-facilitated sexual violence: A literature review of empirical research. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse. doi:10.1177/1524838016650189.

  • Heron, M., Belford, P., & Goker, A. (2014). Sexism in the circuitry: Female participation in male-dominated popular computer culture. ACM SIGCAS Computers and Society, 44(4), 18–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jane, E. A. (2015). Flaming? What flaming? The pitfalls and potentials of researching online hostility. Ethics and Information Technology, 17(1), 65–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jane, E. (2016). Online misogyny and feminist digilantism. Continuum, 30(3), 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khazan, O. (2014, October 27). The rise of the feminist tinder-creep busting web vigilante. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/10/rise-of-the-feminist-creep-busting-web-vigilante/381809/

  • Kuznekoff, J. H., & Rose, L. M. (2013). Communication in multiplayer gaming: Examining player responses to gender cues. New Media & Society, 15(4), 541–556.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lea, M., O’Shea, T., Fung, P., & Spears, R. (1992). ‘Flaming’ in computer-mediated communication: Observations, explanations, implications. Harvester: Wheatsheaf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindsay, M., Booth, J. M., Messing, J. T., & Thaller, J. (2015). Experiences of online harassment among emerging adults emotional reactions and the mediating role of fear. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. doi:10.1177/0886260515584344.

  • Lindsay, M., & Krysik, J. (2012). Online harassment among college students: A replication incorporating new Internet trends. Information, Communication & Society, 15(5), 703–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, R. (1997). Virtual rape. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 2(4). Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00200.x/full

  • Mantilla, K. (2015). How mysogny went viral. Santa Barbara: Praeger Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Massanari, A. (2015). #Gamergate and the Fappening: How Reddit’s algorithm, governance, and culture support toxic technocultures. New Media & Society. doi:10.1177/1461444815608807.

  • Masters, S. (2013, July 29). Twitter threats: Man arrested over rape-threat tweets against campaigner Caroline Criado-Perez. Independent. Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/twitter-threats-man-arrested-over-rape-threat-tweets-against-campaigner-caroline-criado-perez-8735594.html

  • McDonald, P. (2012). Workplace sexual harassment 30 years on: A review of the literature. International Journal of Management Reviews, 14(1), 1–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie-Murray, M. (2014, November 8). Web of abuse grows as online bullies spread malice. The Saturday Paper. Retrieved from https://www.thesaturdaypaper.com.au/news/society/2014/11/08/web-abuse-grows-online-bullies-spread-malice/14153652001222

  • Meachim, L., & Agius, K. (2016, July 29). Blokes advice: Facebook refuses to remove group despite members threats’ against women. ABC News. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-07-29/facebook-will-not-remove-blokes-advice-page-over-threats/7668174

  • Megarry, J. (2014). Online incivility or sexual harassment? Conceptualising women’s experiences in the digital age. Women’s Studies International Forum, 47, 44–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, R., & Cukier, M. (2006). Assessing the attack threat due to IRC channels. Proceedings of the International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, K., Ybarra, M., & Korchmaros, J. (2014). Sexual harassment among adolescents of different sexual orientations and gender identities. Child Abuse and Neglect, 38(2), 280–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morahan-Martin, J. (2000). Women and the Internet: Promise and perils. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 3(5), 683–691.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norton. (2016a). Norton study shows online harassment nears epidemic proportions for young Australian women. Retrieved from https://www.symantec.com/en/au/about/newsroom/press-releases/2016/symantec_0309_01

  • Norton. (2016b). Is online harassment nearing epidemic proportions for young New Zealand women?

    Google Scholar 

  • Nussbaum, M. C. (2010). Objectification and Internet misogyny. In S. Levmore & M. C. Nussbaum (Eds.), The offensive Internet: Speech, privacy, and reputation (pp. 68–90). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheim, M. (2016, March 22). Indian acress Jyothi Krishna hits back after photoshopped pornograpic photo goes viral. Independent. Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/leading-south-indian-actress-jyothi-krishna-hits-back-after-photoshopped-pornographic-photo-goes-a6943786.html

  • Parkin, S. (2014, October 17). Gamergate: A scandal erupts in the video-game community. The New Yorker. Retrieved from https://chooseyourfuture.cps.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Gamergate_-A-Scandal-Erupts-in-the-Video-Game-Community-The-New-Yorker.pdf

  • Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2010). Traditional and nontraditional bullying among youth: A test of general strain theory. Youth & Society, 43(2), 727–751.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, A., & Henry, N. (2016a). Policing technology-facilitated sexual violence against adult victims: Police and service sector perspectives. Policing & Society. doi:10.1080/10439463.2016.1154964.

  • Powell, A., & Henry, N. (2016b). Technology-facilitated sexual violence victimization: Results from an online survey of Australian adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. doi:10.1177/0886260516672055.

  • Reyns, B. W., Henson, B., & Fisher, B. S. (2012). Stalking in the twilight zone: Extent of cyberstalking victimization and offending among college students. Deviant Behavior, 33(1), 1–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarkeesian, A. (2012, July 1). Image based harassment and visual misogyny. Feminist Frequency. Retrieved from https://feministfrequency.com/2012/07/01/image-based-harassment-and-visual-misogyny/

  • Sheridan, L. P., & Grant, T. (2007). Is cyberstalking different? Psychology Crime & Law, 13(6), 627–640.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. (2016, February 11). 15% of American adults have used online dating sites of mobile dating apps. Report. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/02/11/15-percent-of-american-adults-have-used-online-dating-sites-or-mobile-dating-apps/

  • Spitzberg, B., & Hoobler, G. (2002). Cyberstalking and technologies of interpersonal terrorism. New Media & Society, 4(1), 71–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staude-Müller, F., Hansen, B., & Voss, M. (2012). How stressful is online victimisation? Effects of victim’s personality and properties of the incident. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 260–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tennant, J. E., Demaray, K., Coyle, S., & Malecki, C. (2015). The dangers of the web cybervictimization, depression, and social support in college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 348–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, L. (2016, February 3). #Dickpics are no joke: Cyber-flashing, misogyny and online dating. The Conversation. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/dickpics-are-no-joke-cyber-flashing-misogyny-and-online-dating-53843

  • Thompson, M. P., & Morrison, D. J. (2013). Prospective predictors of technology-based sexual coercion by college males. Psychology of Violence, 3(3), 233–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Timmerman, G., & Bajema, C. (1999). Incidence and methodology in sexual harassment research in northwest Europe. Women’s Studies International Forum, 22(6), 673–681.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tokunaga, R. S., & Aune, K. S. (2015). Cyber-defense: A taxonomy of tactics for managing cyberstalking. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. doi:10.1177/0886260515589564.

  • Trades Union Congress (TUC). (2016). Still just a bit of banter? Sexual harassment report. Report. Trades Union Congress. Retrieved from https://www.tuc.org.uk/equality-issues/sexual-harassment/gender-equality/still-just-bit-banter-sexual-harassment-report

  • Tran, C. (2016, July 24). ‘My brother and mates gangbanged her…she cried, I won’: Outrage at shocking Facebook group where men share explicit photos and stories about women. Daily Mail. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3705265/Blokes-Advice-Facebook-group-slammed-domestic-violence-support-service-Red-Heart-Campaign.html

  • Vitis, L., & Gilmour, F. (2016). Dick pics on blast: A woman’s resistance to online sexual harassment using humour, art and Instagram. Crime, Media, Culture. doi:10.1177/1741659016652445.

  • Waldron, J. (2012). The harm in hate speech. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, C. (2015). An analysis of cyberbullying among sexual minority university students. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 15(7), 44–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weston-Scheuber, K. (2012). Gender and the prohibition of hate speech. QUT Law & Justice Journal, 12(2), 132–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodlock, D. (2016). The abuse of technology in domestic violence and stalking. Violence Against Women. doi:10.1177/1077801216646277.

  • Ybarra, M. L., Espelage, D. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2007). The co-occurrence of Internet harassment and unwanted sexual solicitation victimization and perpetration: Associations with psychosocial indicators. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(6), S31–S41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ybarra, M., & Mitchell, K. (2015). A national study of lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB), and non-lgb youth sexual behaviour online and in-person. Archives of Sexual Behaviour, 45(6), 1375–1372.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Justice and Legal Studies, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

    Anastasia Powell

  2. Centre for Global Research, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

    Nicola Henry

Authors
  1. Anastasia Powell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nicola Henry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Copyright information

© 2017 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Powell, A., Henry, N. (2017). Online Misogyny, Harassment and Hate Crimes. In: Sexual Violence in a Digital Age. Palgrave Studies in Cybercrime and Cybersecurity. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58047-4_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58047-4_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-137-58046-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-137-58047-4

  • eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation