Abstract
This chapter considers the different types of effects that violent video games might have on players. Earlier work on media violence explained many of the alleged effects of violent portrayals on television and film by using specific theories concerning the nature of people’s psychological reactions to media. There were concerns that exposure to media violence could lead to imitation effects, trigger aggressive impulses, reduce socially conditioned controls over aggression, arouse people to anger, desensitise them to being less concerned about violence and the plight of victims of violence, discharge aggressive impulses, reduce prosocial behavioural tendencies, create greater acceptance of social violence or greater fear of it, and serve as a mood management device. This chapter considers these effects in relation to video game violence. The chapter also examines new theories, such as the general aggression model and catalyst model, trying to integrate video game effects at cognitive, emotional and behavioural levels.
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abbott, M., Palmisano, B., & Dickerson, M. (1995). Video game playing, dependency and delinquency: A question of methodology? Journal of Gambling Studies, 11(3), 287–301.
Anderson, C. A. (2004). An update on the effects of playing violent video games. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 113–122.
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behaviour, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behaviour: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12(5), 353–359.
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002a). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27–51.
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002b). The effects of media violence on society. Science, 295, 2377–2378.
Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviour in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 772–791.
Anderson, C. A., & Carnagey, N. L. (2004). Violent evil and the general aggression model. In A. Miller (Ed.), The social psychology and good and evil (pp. 168–192). New York: Guilford Publications.
Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. L., Flanagan, M., Benjamin, A. J., Eubanks, J., & Valentine, J. C. (2004). Violent video games: Specific effects of violent content on aggressive thoughts and behaviour. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 199–249.
Anderson, C. A., & Ford, C. M. (1987). Affect of the game player: Short-term effects of highly and mildly aggressive video games. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 390–402.
Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., & Buckley, K. E. (2007). Violent Video Game Effects on Children and Adolescents: Theory, Research and Public Policy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Anderson, C. A., & Huesmann, L. R. (2003). Human aggression: A social cognitive view. In M. A. Hogg & J. Cooper (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 296–323). London: Sage.
Anderson, C. A., & Morrow, M. (1995). Competitive aggression with interaction: Effects of competitive versus cooperative instructions on aggressive behaviour in video games. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1020–1030.
Arriaga, P., Esteves, F., Carneiro, P., & Monteiro, M. B. (2008). Are the effects of unreal violent video games pronounced when playing with a virtual reality system? Aggressive Behavior, 34(5), 521–538.
Arriaga, P., Moneiro, M. B., & Esteves, F. (2011). Effects of playing violent computer games on emotional desensitization and aggressive behaviour. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41, 1900–1925.
Bailey, K., West, R., & Anderson, C. A. (2010). A negative association between video game experience and proactive cognitive control. Psychophysiology, 47, 34–42.
Bailey, K., West, R., & Anderson, C. A. (2011). The influence of video games on social, cognitive, and affective information processing. In J. Decety & J. Cacioppo (Eds.), Handbook of social neuroscience (pp. 1001–1011). New York: Oxford University Press.
Ballard, M. E., & Weist, J. R. (1996). Mortal KombatTM: The effects of violent videogame play on males’ hostility and cardiovascular responding. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 717–730.
Bandura, A. (1965). Vicarious processes: A case of no-trial learning. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 1–55). New York: Academic Press.
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning theory analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognition theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1994). The social cognitive theory of mass communication. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 61–90). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575–582.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 3–11.
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Bartholow, B. D., Bushman, B. J., & Sestir, M. A. (2006). Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to violence: Behavioral and event-related brain potential data. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 532–539.
Belsky, J., & Fearon, R. M. P. (2002). Infant-mother attachment security, contextual risk, and early development: A moderational analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 48–60.
Berkowitz, L. (1965). Some aspects of observed aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2, 359–369.
Berkowitz, L. (1984). Some effects of thoughts on anti- and prosocial influences of media events: A cognitive-neoassociation analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 410–427.
Berkowitz, L., & Alioto, J. T. (1973). The meaning of an observed event as a determinant of its aggressive consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 206–217.
Berkowitz, L., & Rogers, K. H. (1986). A priming effect analysis of media influences. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 57–81). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bender, J., Rothmund, T., & Gollwitzer, M. (2013). Biased estimation of violent video game effects on aggression: Contributing factors and boundary conditions. Societies, 3, 383–398.
Bensley, L., & van Eenyk, J. (2001). Video games and real-life aggression: Review of the literature. Journal of Adolescent Health, 29, 244–257.
Biblow, E. (1973). Imaginative play and the control of aggressive behaviour. In J. L. Singer (Ed.), The child’s world of make-believe: Experimental studies of imaginative play (pp. 104–128). New York: Academic Press.
Bjorkqvist, K., & Didriksson, B. (1985, August). Desensitization to film violence in aggressive and nonaggressive boys. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Society for Aggression, Parma, Italy.
Braun, C., & Giroux, J. (1989). Arcade video games: Proxemic, cognitive and content analyses. Journal of Leisure Research, 21, 92–105.
Braun, C., Goupil, G., Giroux, J., & Chagnon, Y. (1986). Adolescents and microcomputers: Sex differences, proxemics, task and stimulus variables. Journal of Psychology, 120, 529–542.
Brusa, J. A. (1988). Effects of video game playing on children’s social behaviour (aggression, cooperation). Dissertation Abstracts International-B, 48(10), 3127.
Buchman, D. D., & Funk, J. B. (1996). Video and computer games in the ’90s: Children’s time commitment and game preference. Children Today, 24, 12–16.
Buckley, K. E., & Anderson, C. A. (2006). A theoretical model of the effects and consequences of playing video games. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses and consequences (pp. 363–378). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2009). Comfortably numb: Desensitizing effects of violent media in helping others. Psychological Science, 20(3), 273–277.
Calvert, S. L., & Tan, S. (1994). Impact of virtual reality on young adults’ physiological arousal and aggressive thoughts: Interaction versus observation. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15, 125–139.
Carnagey, N. L., & Anderson, C. A. (2005). The effects of reward and punishment in violent video games on aggressive affect, cognition, and behavior. Psychological Science, 16, 882–889.
Chambers, J. H., & Ascione, F. R. (1987). The effects of prosocial and aggressive videogames on children’s donating and helping. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 148, 499–505.
Chen, L., Zhou, S. & Bryant, J. (2007). Temporal changes in mood repair through music consumption: Effects of mood, mood salience and individual differences. Media Psychology, 9, 695-–13.
Cline, V. B., Croft, R. G., & Courrier, S. (1973). Desensitization of children to television violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 260–265.
Collins, W. A. (1979). Children’s comprehension of television content. In E. Wartella (Ed.), Children communicating: Media and development of thought, speech and understanding (pp. 21–52). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Colwell, J. (2007). Needs met through computer game play among adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 2072–2082.
Cooper, J., & Mackie, D. (1986). Video games and aggression in children. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16, 726–744.
Crick, N. R., & Didge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74–101.
Dale, E. (1935). The content of motion pictures. New York: Macmillan.
DeLisi, M., Vaughn, M. G., Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., & Shook, J. J. (2013). Violent video games, delinquency, and youth violence: New evidence.Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 11(2), 132–142.
Dill, K. E., & Dill, J. C. (1998). Video game violence: A review of the empirical literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior: A Review Journal, 3, 407–428.
Dillman-Carpentier, F., Brown, J., Bertocci, M., Silk, J., Forbes, E., & Dahl, R. (2008). Sad kids, sad media? Applying mood management theory to depressed adolescents’ use of media. Media Psychology, 11, 143–166.
Dodge, K. A., & Petit, G. S. (2003). A biopsychological model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 39, 349–371.
Dominick, J. R. (1984). Videogames, television violence and aggression in teenagers. Journal of Communication, 34, 136–147.
Donnertsein, E., Slaby, R. G., & Eron, L. D. (1994). The mass media and youth aggression. In L. D. Eron, J. H. Gentry, & P. Schlegel (Eds.), Reason to hope: A psychosocial perspective on violence and youth (pp. 219–250). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Doob, A. N., & Climie, R. J. (1972). Delay of measurement and the effects of film violence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 8(2), 136–142.
Durkin, K. (1995). Computer games, their effects on young people: A review. Sydney, Australia: Office of Film & Literature Classification.
Durkin, K., & Low, J. (2000). Computer games and aggression research in Australia and New Zealand. In C. von Feilitzen & U. Carlsson (Eds.), Children in the new media landscape (pp. 79–82). Goteburg, Sweden: UNESCO International Claringhouse on Children and Violence on the Screen.
Egli, E. A., & Meyers, L. S. (1984). The role of video-game playing in adolescent life: Is there a reason to be concerned? Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22, 309–312.
Ellis, L., & Walsh, A. (1997). Gene-based evolutionary theories in criminology. Criminology, 35, 229–276.
Emes, C. E. (1997). Is Mr Pac Man eating our children? A review of the effect of video games on children. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 42(4), 409–414.
Ferguson, C. J., & Dyck, D. (2012). Paradigm change in aggression research: The time has come to retire the general aggression model. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17, 220–228.
Ferguson, C. J., & Rueda, S. M. (2010). The Hitman study: Violent video game exposure effects on aggressive behaviour, hostile feelings, and depression. European Psychologist, 15(2), 99–108.
Ferguson, C. J., Rueda, S. M., Cruz, A. M., Ferguson, D. E., Fritz, S., & Smith, S. M. (2008). Violent video games and aggression: Causal relationship of byproduct of family violence and intrinsic violence motivation? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 311–332.
Feshbach, S. (1955). The drive-reducing function of fantasy behaviour. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 5, 3–11.
Feshbach, S. (1961). The stimulating versus cathartic effects of a vicarious aggressive activity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 381–385.
Feshbach, S., & Singer, R. D. (1971). Television and aggression. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Fling, S., Smith, L., Rodriguez, T., Thornton, D., Atkins, E., & Nixon, K. (1992). Videogames, aggression, and self-esteem: A survey. Social Behavior and Personality, 20, 39–46.
Funk, J. B. (2005). Children’s exposure to violent video games and desensitization to violence. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14(3), 387–404.
Funk, J. B., & Buchman, D. D. (1996). Playing violent computer games and adolescent self-concept. Journal of Communication, 46, 19–32.
Funk, J. B., Baldacci, H. B., Pasold, T., & Baumgartner, J. (2004). Violent exposurein real life, video games, television, movies and the internet: Is there desensitization? Journal of Adolescence, 27(1), 23–39.
Geen, R. G. (1990). Human aggression. Pacific Grove, CA: MacGraw-Hill.
Geen, R. G. (1994). Television and aggression: Recent developments in research and theory. In D. Zillmann, J. Bryant, & A. C. Huston (Eds.), Media, children and the family (pp. 151–162). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Geen, R. G., & Quanty, M. B. (1977). The catharsis of aggression: An evaluation of a hypothesis. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 1–37). New York: Academic Press.
Gentile, D. A., & Sesma, A. (2003). Developmental approaches to understanding media effects on individuals. In D. A. Gentile (Ed.), Media violence and children (pp. 19–38). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Gentile, D. A., Groves, C., & Gentile, J. R. (2013). The general learning model: Unveiling the learning potential from video games. In F. C. Blumberg (Ed.), Learning by playing: Frontiers of video gaming in education (pp. 121–142). New York: Oxford University Press.
Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of Communication, 26, 173–199.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Eleey, M. F., Jackson-Beeck, M., Jeffries-Fox, S., & Signorielli, N. (1977). Television violence profile no.8: The highlights. Journal of Communication, 27, 171–180.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Jackson-Beeck, M., Jeffries-Fox, S., & Signorielli, N. (1978). Cultural indicators: Violence profile no. 9. Journal of Communication, 28, 176–207.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Signorielli, N., Morgan, M., & Jackson-Beeck, M. (1979). The demonstration of power: Violence profile no. 10. Journal of Communication, 29, 177–196.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1980). The ‘mainstreaming’ of America: Violence profile no. 11. Journal of Communication, 30, 10–29.
Graybill, D., Kirsch, J. R., & Esselman, E. D. (1985). Effects of playing violent versus nonviolent video games on the aggressive ideation of aggressive and non-aggressive children. Child Study Journal, 15, 199–205.
Greitemeyer, T. (2014a). Intense acts of violence during video game play makedaily life aggression appear innocuous: A new mechanism why violent videogames increase aggression. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 50, 52–56.
Greitemeyer, T. (2014b). Playing violent video games increases intergroup bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 70–78.
Greitemeyer, T., & Mclatchie, N. (2011). Denying humanness to others: A newlydiscovered mechanism by which violent video games increase aggressive behaviour. Psychological Science, 22, 659–665.
Griffiths, M. (1999). Violent video games and aggression: A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 4(2), 203–212.
Griffiths, M. (2000). Video game violence and aggression: A review of research. In C. von Feilitzen & U. Carlsson (Eds.), Children in the new media landscape (pp. 31–34). Goteburg, Sweden: UNESCO International Claringhouse on Children and Violence on the Screen.
Guerra, N. G., Huesmann, L. R., & Hanish, L. (1995). The role of normative beliefs in children’s social behaviour. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology: Vol. 15. Social development (pp. 140–158). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gunter, B. (1980). The cathartic potential of television drama. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 33, 448–450.
Gunter, B. (1985). Dimensions of television violence. Aldershot, England: Gower.
Hawkins, R., & Pingree, S. (1980). Some processes in the cultivation effect. Communication Research, 7, 193–226.
Healy, D., & Williams, J. (1988). Dysrhythmia, dysphoria, and depression: The interaction of learned helplessness and circadian dysrhythmia in the pathogenesis of depression. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 163–178.
Hirsch, P. (1980). The “scary” world of the non-viewer and other anomalies: A reanalysis of Gerbner et al.’s finding on cultivation analysis: Part I. Communication Research, 7, 403–456.
Hirsch, P. (1981a). On not learning from one’s own mistakes: A reanalysis of Gerbner et al.’s findings on cultivation analysis: Part II. Communication Research, 8, 73–96.
Hirsch, P. (1981b). Distinguishing good speculations from bad theory: Rejoinder to Gerbner et al. Communication Research, 8, 3–37.
Hughes, M. (1980). The fruits of cultivation analysis: A re-examination of the effects of television in fear of victimization, alienation and approval of violence. Public Opinion Quarterly, 44, 287–302.
Huesmann, L. R. (1986). Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure to media violence and aggressive behaviour by the viewer. Journal of Social Issues, 42(3), 125–139.
Huesmann, L. R. (1988). An information-processing model for the development of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 13–24.
Irwin, A. R., & Gross, A. M. (1995). Cognitive tempo, violent video games, and aggressive behaviour in young boys. Journal of Family Violence, 10, 337–350.
Jo, E., & Berkowitz, L. (1994). A priming effect analysis of media influences: An update. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 43–60). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Josephson, W. (1987). Television violence and children’s aggression: Testing the priming, social script and disinhibition predictors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 882–890.
Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L., & Heironen, K. (2003). Childhood roots of adult hostility: Family factors as predictors of affective and cognitive hostility. Child Development, 74, 1751–1768.
Kestenbaum, G. I., & Weinstein, L. (1985). Personality, psychopathology and developmental issues in male adolescent video game use. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 329–333.
Kirsh, S. J. (2003). The effects of violent video games on adolescents: The overlooked influence of development. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 8, 377–389.
Krahe, B., & Moller, I. (2010). Longitudinal effects of media violence on aggression and empathy among German adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 401–409.
Kubey, R., & Larson, R. (1990). The use of experience of the new video media among children and adolescents. Communication Research, 17, 107–130.
Liebert, R. M., & Baron, R. A. (1972). Some immediate effects of televised violence on children’s behaviour. Developmental Psychology, 6, 469–475.
Lin, J. H. (2013). Identification matters: A moderated mediation model of media interactivity, character identification, and video game violence on aggression. Journal of Communication, 63, 682–702.
Linn, S., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Correlates of children’s usage of videogames and computers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 72–93.
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.
Masten, A. S., Hubbard, J. J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N., & Ramirez, M. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 143–169.
Masten, A. S., & Reed, M. G. J. (2002). Resilience in development. In S. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The handbook of positive psychology (pp. 74–88). New York: Oxford University Press.
Mehrabian, A., & Wixen, W. (1986). Preferences for individual video games as a function of their emotional effects on players. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16, 3–15.
Nabi, R. L., Finnerty, K., Domschke, T., & Hull, S. (2006). Does misery love company? Exploring the therapeutic effects of TV viewing on regretted experiences. Journal of Communication, 56, 689–706.
Olson, C. K., Kutner, L., & Warner, D. (2008). The role of violent video game play in adolescent development: Boys’ perspectives. Journal of Adolescence Research, 23, 55–75.
Osborn, C. K., & Endsley, R. C. (1971). Emotional reactions of young children to TV violence. Child Development, 42, 321–331.
Polman, H., de Castro, B. O., & van Aken, M. A. (2008). Experimental study of the differential effects of playing versus watching violent video games on children’s aggressive behaviour. Aggressive Behavior, 34(3), 256–264.
Ramos, R. A., Ferguson, C. J., Frailing, K., & Romero-Ramirez, M. (2013).Comfortably numb or just yet another movie? Media violence exposure doesnot reduce viewer empathy for victims of real violence among primarily Hispanic viewers. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2(1), 2–10.
Rule, B. G., & Ferguson, T. J. (1986). The effects of media violence on attitudes, emotions and cognitions. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 29–50.
Rutter, M. (2003). Commentary: Causal processes leading to antisocial behaviour. Developmental Psychology, 39, 372–378.
Sakamoto, A. (2000). Video games and violence: Controversy and research in Japan. In C. von Feilitzen & U. Carlsson (Eds.), Children in the new media landscape (pp. 61–68). Goteburg, Sweden: UNESCO International Clearinghouse on Children and Violence on the Screen.
Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Post-Gorden, J. C., & Rodasta, A. L. (1988). Effects of playing video games on children’s aggressive and other behaviours. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 454–460.
Scott, D. (1995). The effect of video games on feelings of aggression. Journal of Psychology, 129, 121–132.
Shafer, D. M. (2012). Causes of state hostility and enjoyment in player versusplayer and player versus environment video games. Journal of Communication, 62, 719–737.
Sherry, J. (2007). Violent video games and aggression: Why can’t we find links? In R. Priess, B. Gayle, N. Burrell, M. Allen, & J. Bryant (Eds.), Mass media effects research: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 231–248). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Shrum, L. J. (1996). Psychological processes underlying cultivation effects: Further tests of construct accessibility. Human Communication Research, 22(4), 482–509.
Shrum, L. J., & O’Guinn, T. C. (1993). Processes and effects in the construction of social reality: Construct accessibility as an explanatory variable. Communication Research, 20, 436–471.
Silvern, S. B., & Williamson, P. A. (1987). The effects of video-game play on young children’s aggression, fantasy and prosocial behaviour. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 8, 453–462.
Singer, J. L. (1966). Daydreaming: An introduction to the experimental study of inner experience. New York: Random House.
Strizhakova, Y., & Krcmar, M. (2007). Mood management and video rental choices. Media Psychology, 10, 91–112.
Swing, E. L., & Anderson, C. A. (2007). The unintended negative consequences of exposure to violent video games. Cognitive Technology, 12(1), 3–13.
Tannenbaum, P., & Zillmann, D. (1975). Emotional arousal in the facilitation of aggression through communication. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 149–192). New York: Academic Press.
Thomas, M. H. (1982). Physiological arousal, exposure to a relatively lengthy aggressive film, and aggressive behaviour. Journal of Research in Personality, 16, 72–81.
Thomas, M. H., & Drabman, R. S. (1975). Toleration of real life aggression as a function of exposure to televised violence and age of subject. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 21, 227–232.
Thomas, M. H., Horton, R. W., Lippincott, E. C., & Drabman, R. C. (1977). Desensitization to portrayals of real-life aggression as a function of exposure to television violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 450–458.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1973). Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. Cognitive Psychology, 5, 207–232.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under certainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124–1131.
Uhlman, E., & Swanson, J. (2004). Exposure to violent video games increases automatic aggressiveness. Journal of Adolescence, 27(1), 41–52.
Unsworth, G., & Ward, T. (2001). Video games and aggressive behaviour. Australian Psychologist, 36, 184–192.
Walters, R. H., & Thomas, E. L. (1963). Enhancement of punitiveness by visual and audiovisual displays. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 17, 244–255.
Walters, R. H., Thomas, E. L., & Acker, C. W. (1962). Enhancement of punitive behaviour by audiovisual displays. Science, 136, 872–873.
Winkel, M., Novak, D. M., & Hopson, M. (1987). Personality factors, subject gender and the effects of aggressive video games in adolescents. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 211–223.
Wober, M., & Gunter, B. (1988). Television and social control. Aldershot, England: Avebury.
Zillmann, D. (1983). Arousal and aggression. In R. Geen & E. Donnerstein (Eds.), Aggression: Theoretical and empirical reviews (Vol. 1, pp. 75–102). New York: Academic Press.
Zillmann, D., Bryant, J., Comisky, P. W., & Medoff, N. J. (1981). Excitation and hedonic valence in the effect of erotica motivated internal aggression. European Journal of Social Psychology, 11, 233–252.
Zillmann, D. (1988). Cognition-excitation interdependence in aggressive behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 51–64.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Copyright information
© 2016 The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Gunter, B. (2016). What Are the Effects That Cause Concern?. In: Does Playing Video Games Make Players More Violent?. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57985-0_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57985-0_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-57984-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-57985-0
eBook Packages: Literature, Cultural and Media StudiesLiterature, Cultural and Media Studies (R0)