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Theriocide and Homicide

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Murdering Animals

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Green Criminology ((PSGC))

Abstract

Theriocide refers to those diverse human actions that cause the deaths of animals. Like the killing of one human by another (e.g. homicide, infanticide and femicide), a theriocide may be socially acceptable or unacceptable, legal or illegal. It may be intentional or unintentional. It may involve active maltreatment or passive neglect. Theriocides may occur one-on-one, in small groups or in large-scale social institutions. The numerous sites of theriocide include one-on-one acts of cruelty and neglect; state theriocide; factory farming; hunting and blood sports; abduction and kidnapping (‘trafficking’ in wildlife); vivisection; militarism and war; pollution; and human-induced climate change. Inevitably, the chapter leads to a shocking question: is theriocide murder?

The confusion of all nonhuman living creatures within the general and common category of the animal is not simply a sin against rigorous thinking, vigilance, lucidity, or empirical authority; it is also a crime. Not a crime against animality precisely, but a crime of the first order against animals.

—Jacques Derrida

When I say that the mistreatment of animals is unjust, I mean to say not only that it is wrong of us to treat them in that way, but also that they have a right, a moral entitlement, not to be treated in that way. It is unfair to them.

—Martha Nussbaum

This is a revised and expanded version of Piers Beirne, ‘Theriocide: Naming Animal Killing’, International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy, 2014, 3(2): 50–67. © Piers Beirne.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Regan (2004: 202).

  2. 2.

    On the Ypres custom see Cohen (1993: 107).

  3. 3.

    Sahlins (2012: 243); see further Senior (2004). Derrida recounts a visit to the menagerie by Louis XIV in 1681 when the Sun King deigned to bestow his presence on the ceremonial dissection of an elephant . Somewhat incongruously with the direction of much else of his discussion of animal exploitation in The Beast and the Sovereign, Derrida proceeds to describe as ‘sad … the decline of the menagerie under Louis XV and Louis XVI and its inglorious end during the Revolution’ (2009: 275, my emphasis).

  4. 4.

    Foucault (1978: 203). Bentham himself suggested in a letter written in Crecheff in White Russia, however, that he had borrowed the idea of the Panopticon from several drawings of an inspection house executed (‘Samuel Bentham … renit’) by his brother Samuel (Bentham 1787: 65). A year earlier, in 1786, while he was manager of Potemkin’s estate, Samuel Bentham designed workshops and a panoptical factory to guard the undisciplined overseers of peasant workers. The precise inspiration for Samuel Bentham’s own design remains a mystery. See also the ironic postscript identified in note 50 below.

  5. 5.

    Vialles (1998: 15, 22–26). See also Lee (2008).

  6. 6.

    My colleague Ian O’Donnell has kindly informed me that the word ‘knacker’ is used in modern-day Ireland as a derogatory term for a member of the Travelling Community.

  7. 7.

    1487, Act 4, Hen. V11, c.3.

  8. 8.

    Dodd (1856: 90). See also Jones (1976: Chap. 4) and MacLachlan (2007).

  9. 9.

    See further Beirne (2013: 11–12).

  10. 10.

    See further Beirne (2013: 53–54). In his Commentaries on the Laws of England Blackstone (1765–69, III, Chap. 13: 217) recorded that animals’ ‘stench’ could be cause for actionable nuisance:

    [I]f a person keeps his hogs, or other noisome animals, so near the house of another, that the stench of them incommodes him and makes the air unwholsome, this is an injurious nusance, as it tends to deprive him of the use and benefit of his house. A like injury is, if one’s neighbour sets up and exercises any offensive trade; as a tanner’s, a tallowchandler’s, or the like.

    None of the numerous royal and statutory proclamations aimed to reduce or eliminate animal slaughter; their intention was always to reduce noise, smell, blood and offal.

  11. 11.

    Blackstone (1765–69, III, Chap. 13: 217).

  12. 12.

    Thomas (1983: 300).

  13. 13.

    Pachirat (2011: 138–39).

  14. 14.

    Thomas (1983: 83–85).

  15. 15.

    Beirne (2007: 63, 2009: 17, 182), Nihan (2007: 407–08, 413 n.76) and Schwartz (1996: 7, 31). I have used the term ‘serial theriocide’ as shorthand for a series of fatal sexual assaults on horses and cattle in England and Wales; for two decades of pigeon poisonings in Central Park in New York City; and for the decade-long killing of dogs along bicycle and jogging paths in affluent expatriate areas in Hong Kong (Beirne 2009: 17, 182).

  16. 16.

    Nihan (2007: 408).

  17. 17.

    Nihan (2007: 407–08, 413 n.76), See also Milgrom (2008: 1456–57).

  18. 18.

    For example, see the numerous chapters on animal abuse, cruelty and neglect in Maher, Pierpoint and Beirne (2017) and Brewster and Reyes (2016). The death of animals through neglect is still relatively unexplored, though Nurse (2017) does much to remedy this silence.

  19. 19.

    See respectively, Beirne (2009: 21–68, 48–49) and Beirne (69–96).

  20. 20.

    For example, in the US roughly 2.4 million chickens are killed each day for American consumers, as are 650,000 turkeys and 72,000 ducks (USDA 2016a, b).

  21. 21.

    In employing the term ‘state theriocide’ I have leaned on both (1) Raghnild Sollund’s (2017) analysis of the speciesist interventions by the Norwegian state in the failed suppression of certain forms of the illegal wildlife trade there and (2) the existing concepts of state-organized crime and state-corporate crime in critical criminology (for example, see Kramer and Michalowski 2012; Lynch, Burns and Stretesky 2010; Bisschop 2015).

  22. 22.

    On the state-corporate collusion that caused the fire see the detailed analysis of Aulette and Michalowski (1993).

  23. 23.

    APHIS (2016).

  24. 24.

    APHIS (2016).

  25. 25.

    Dr Temple Grandin has been praised by PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals), by the American Meat Institute and by Oliver Sacks in his well-known interview with her in An Anthropologist on Mars. Grandin herself and others have said that 50 per cent of all cattle slaughtered in the US and Canada are killed according to her architectural principles and designs. However, there are great philosophical difficulties raised by her claim that it is her disability that allows her to ‘think in pictures’ and to understand or empathize with animals. Moreover, there are serious ecofeminist concerns with the self-declared scientific objectivity and logic of her approach to animal welfare, which is situated in a masculinist and speciesist binary.

  26. 26.

    USDA (2016a: 8). Derrida has compared human genocide with the large-scale rearing and killing of animals for food, which is ‘over the past two centuries … unprecedented ’ (2002: 394–95); see further Taylor and Fraser (2017).

  27. 27.

    USDA (2016b: 5).

  28. 28.

    USDA (2016b: 12–17). For discussion of the harms inherent in factory farming see, for example, Taylor and Fraser (2017), Pachirat (2011) and Fitzgerald (2010).

  29. 29.

    This is the rough estimate by the animal rights group ADAPTT (2017).

  30. 30.

    National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2016: 4–5).

  31. 31.

    On hunting illegalities in the UK see Squires (2017) and Nurse (2013).

  32. 32.

    US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012).

  33. 33.

    Sollund (2013: 72), Wyatt (2013: 9) and Sollund and Maher (2015: 1). On the importance of renaming animal ‘trafficking’ as the abduction and kidnapping of animals see Sollund (2011: 438, n.3, 2015: 163, 163n) and Goyes and Sollund (2016: 88). See discussions by Maher and Wyatt (2017) and (Sollund 2017) on animals and animal body parts seized in the course of their abduction and Boekhout van Solinge (2010) on the effects of deforestation on wildlife habitat destruction.

  34. 34.

    See Peterson (2013: Chaps. 4 and 5).

  35. 35.

    Regan (2007: 118).

  36. 36.

    Sorenson (2014a: 33).

  37. 37.

    Respectively, Hediger (2013) and Nocella et al. (2014). See also Hediger (2017) and Fichtelberg (2015).

  38. 38.

    For a discussion of the military–beef nexus during the Second World War, see Adams (2010: 52), who notes how US government rationing policies reserved a consistent supply of meat for American soldiers, who were the epitome of masculine men at that time. For a discussion of the couplet of nationalism and carnism, see Chap. 4 below.

  39. 39.

    See further Beirne and Kelty-Huber (2015).

  40. 40.

    Walters (2013: 140–01) and White (2013).

  41. 41.

    Walters (2013: 137). On the relative lack of publicity regarding environmental pollution, see Lynch, Stretesky and Hammond (2000), Brisman, South and White (2015), Lynch, Barrett, Stretesky, Long, Jarrell and Ozymy (2015) and Lynch et al. (2017).

  42. 42.

    Cahill et al. (2012: 1). See also IPCC (2016), Agnew (2013) and White (2013).

  43. 43.

    Lynch, Burns and Stretesky (2010) and Kramer and Michalowski (2012).

  44. 44.

    Le Quéré et al. (2015).

  45. 45.

    Cahill et al. (2012) for a list of currently endangered and critically endangered species worldwide see the International Union for Conservation of Nature (2017).

  46. 46.

    Urban (2015: 571–73).

  47. 47.

    Sorenson (2014b). See also Singer (1975: Chap. 2).

  48. 48.

    National Resources Defense Council (2013); see also Gray and Hinch (2015: 104) and Bristow and Fitzgerald (2011).

  49. 49.

    Derrida (2002: 402).

  50. 50.

    An ironic postscript to the comments on brothers Samuel and Jeremy Bentham’s eighteenth-century panoptical design (see note 4 above) is provided by a petition from Animal Aid, the UK animal rights organization. The petition urges the mandatory use of CCTV in slaughterhouses: ‘Installing CCTV in slaughterhouses would monitor workers to prevent animal cruelty, help with training staff, and record any instances of animal abuse for use in prosecutions’ (2013).

  51. 51.

    On the variety of reactions to animals’ deaths see further Taylor (2013).

  52. 52.

    American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (2017).

  53. 53.

    See further Taylor’s (2013) enlightening essay on the complexity of our responses to animals’ deaths. See also Dooren (2014).

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  1. Department of Criminology, University of Southern Maine, Portland, ME, USA

    Piers Beirne

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Beirne, P. (2018). Theriocide and Homicide. In: Murdering Animals. Palgrave Studies in Green Criminology. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57468-8_2

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57468-8_2

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