Abstract
Parnell lays the foundation for his study of the careers and relationships of Byzantine army officers by describing the structure and functioning of that army in the sixth century. The chapter explains the differences among the various units of the Byzantine army, including the field armies, the federates, forces hired from allies, and the personal guardsmen of generals. The ranks and positions within each unit are also explained. Finally, Parnell addresses the processes, as much as is known, of recruitment and promotion in the army. Recruitment in the sixth century was primarily voluntary and promotion seems to have been determined through a combination of merit, seniority, and patronage from officers with whom one had a relationship.
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Notes
- 1.
Due to the nature of the sources, it is difficult to completely detail the organization of the army. Even when they actually discuss military structure, most of the time sources fail to specify numbers of soldiers in a unit, ranks of soldiers and officers, or even the official name of the unit. See Jones 1964, 1:654–5.
- 2.
Important monographs include Southern and Dixon 1996, Treadgold 1995, and Sarantis 2016. Among edited volumes with many fine contributions, see Cameron 1995, Maas 2004, Sabin, Van Wees, and Whitby 2007, Haldon 2007, and Sarantis and Christie 2013.
- 3.
See, for example, Webster 1985.
- 4.
For a summary, see Southern and Dixon 1996, 6.
- 5.
Southern and Dixon 1996, 1.
- 6.
The Army of the East was responsible for the entire swath of the Eastern frontier ranging from Mesopotamia to Egypt. The Army of Armenia was a creation of Justinian, designed to supplement the Army of the East and responsible for lands to the north of Mesopotamia. See Jones 1964, 1:655.
- 7.
Treadgold 1995, 15–17.
- 8.
Jones 1964, 1:660.
- 9.
For Belisarius and the Army of the East, see Procopius Wars 3.11.1–21 and Treadgold 1995, 15. For the generals of Illyricum, see Procopius Wars 6.13.17, 7.10.2.
- 10.
Jones 1964, 1:649; Treadgold 1995, 11; Isaac 1992.
- 11.
Treadgold 1995, 9.
- 12.
Jones 1964, 1:653, 661–2.
- 13.
Rhecithancus was the duke at either Damascus or Palmyra in 541 when he and his troops accompanied Belisarius on an invasion of Persian Mesopotamia (Procopius Wars 2.16.17–19). Malalas relates that the dukes of Phoenicia and Euphratesia joined elements of the Army of the East to bring Alamundarus to battle in 528 (Joh. Mal. 18.16). See also Jones 1964, 1:651.
- 14.
Jones 1964, 1:663; Southern and Dixon 1996, 65.
- 15.
Benjamin Isaac has expertly described the limitanei in Palestine in Isaac 1989. See also Isaac 1992. In defense of the importance of the limitanei, see Whitby 2007a, 523.
- 16.
As explored in Isaac 1992.
- 17.
Belisarius brought 600 Massagetae (Huns) to Africa (Procopius Wars 3.11.11–12). Narses had a close relationship with the Heruls, and was even able to select their own commander from among them (Agathias Histories 1.11.3). On Narses and the Heruls, see also Whitby 1995, 106. The Ghassanid Arabs under Arethas fought with Belisarius at Callinicum (Procopius Wars 1.17.47, 1.18.7).
- 18.
Procopius Wars 3.11.3.
- 19.
Jones 1964, 1:664.
- 20.
See the description of the military forces under Belisarius in 533: Procopius Wars 3.11.5–15.
- 21.
Jones 1964, 1:665.
- 22.
The definitive work on the bucellarii is Schmitt 1994. See also Gascou 1976 and Haldon 1984, 101–2.
- 23.
Schmitt 1994, 156.
- 24.
Jones 1964, 1:666. Although in a private relationship with their master, bucellarii received their food and weapons from the state. On the mixture of private and public aspects of their role, see Lenski 2009, 159.
- 25.
Procopius Wars 7.1.20–21.
- 26.
Procopius Wars 7.1.20. Modern historians have criticized Procopius’ figure. Hugh Elton has charged that the number is ‘probably an exaggeration’ (Elton 2007, 282). Michael Whitby argues that this was too large a number of guards to be ‘employed permanently by an individual’ (Whitby 1995, 117). There is no particular reason why this number has to be an exaggeration, and neither critic has suggested a plausible motivation for Procopius to exaggerate it. As Belisarius’ private secretary, Procopius was in excellent position to know exactly how many bucellarii his boss employed. Moreover, Belisarius is known to have needed soldiers in the Ostrogothic War, and known to have been rich from his victory over the Vandals. It is not hard to imagine that he would hire as many soldiers as he could, even up to 7000. The number does seem unusually high, but this does not mean it is incorrect.
- 27.
Procopius Wars 7.1.18–20, 7.27.3; Agathias Histories 1.19.4–5; Schmitt 1994, 162–3.
- 28.
See Chap. 7.
- 29.
For example, Damianus, the nephew of Valerian, was in command of 400 of his uncle’s guardsmen (Procopius Wars 6.7.26).
- 30.
Procopius Wars 7.10.1, 7.12.10.
- 31.
See the summary in Treadgold 1995, 3–6.
- 32.
Agathias Histories 5.13.7–8.
- 33.
Mommsen 1889, 257; Jones 1964, 1:683.
- 34.
Treadgold 1995, 59–63.
- 35.
See Haldon 1999, 99–101; Elton 2007, 285; and Lee 2007a, 77. More recent volumes such as Sarantis and Christie 2013 ignore the question altogether, which indicates that the answer is perhaps considered settled pending new information.
- 36.
Treadgold 1995, 63. See also Procopius Wars 1.15.11, 1.18.5.
- 37.
Dara: Procopius Wars 1.13.9–39 and see also Haldon 2001, 30. Busta Gallorum: Procopius Wars 8.29–32 and see also Rance 2005, 447. Compare Elton 2007, 285.
- 38.
Elton 2007, 279.
- 39.
Elton 2007, 280.
- 40.
Elton 2007, 282. Maurice Strategikon 3.6–9.
- 41.
Elton 2007, 284.
- 42.
For a good interpretation of the descriptions and diagrams of the Strategikon, see Treadgold 1995, 93–96.
- 43.
Maurice Strategikon 3.1–4.
- 44.
Maurice Strategikon 1.3.
- 45.
Southern and Dixon 1996, 64. Often the word strategos was modified with geographical terms to offer an approximation of the Latin title. For example, Procopius describes Belisarius not as magister militum per Orientem but as being the general (strategos) in command ‘of the troops of the East’ (Procopius Wars 3.11.1–21).
- 46.
Jones 1964, 1:535. This distinction does not always appear in Greek sources, as both generals (magistri) of named regions and generals without regional distinction (magistri militum vacans) were dubbed strategoi.
- 47.
Jones 1964, 2:Map IV.
- 48.
Jones 1964, 1:640.
- 49.
Jones 1964, 1:643, 675.
- 50.
Jones argued that in the sixth century, dukes could command federates and units of the field armies (Jones 1964, 1:660, 665). On the increased role of dukes, see also Jones, Martindale, and Morris 1971 [Hereafter PLRE], Guduin 1, 3:561.
- 51.
John the son of Sisiniolus was sent as a commander with Solomon on his second trip to Africa and described as an archon (Procopius Wars 4.19.1). Damianus, described as a taxiarchos, was employed by the general Tiberius as a messenger to Justin II in 571 (Menander Protector History 15.5). Vitalius was the commander in charge of the right wing at the Battle of Solachon in 585 and is also described as a taxiarchos (Theophylact History 2.3.1).
- 52.
On the relationship between the vague titles archon, taxiarchos, and comes rei militaris, see PLRE 3: Theodorus 21 at 1251 and Stein 1949, 2:814–5.
- 53.
On the importance of personalities and relationships to exercising authority in the army, see Chap. 5.
- 54.
Maurice Strategikon 1.3.
- 55.
Each regiment had about twelve staff officers, including surgeons, heralds, cape bearers, trumpeters, and drummers. See Treadgold 1995, 95.
- 56.
Jones 1964, 1:615.
- 57.
Jones 1964, 1:615–9.
- 58.
Ravegnani 1998, 15.
- 59.
Jones 1964, 1:668.
- 60.
Jones 1964, 1:669–670. Southern and Dixon 1996, 65, adds as an additional possibility for the popularity of military service that prospective recruits were enthusiastic about taking part in expansionist campaigns.
- 61.
Ward-Perkins 2005, 110–137.
- 62.
Procopius Secret History 19.7.
- 63.
Treadgold 1995, 149–154.
- 64.
Treadgold 1995, 203.
- 65.
Theophylact History 7.1.7.
- 66.
Whitby 1995, 68.
- 67.
Whitby 1995, 77.
- 68.
Whitby 1995, 78–80.
- 69.
Whitby 1995, 68, 78. See also Ravegnani 1998, 25 on cases of exceptional recruitment.
- 70.
Teall 1965, 315. See Chap. 3.
- 71.
Fotiou 1988, 67.
- 72.
Fotiou 1988, 68–75.
- 73.
See Chap. 8, ‘The Opinion of Soldiers and Officers’.
- 74.
Whitby 1995, 100.
- 75.
Lee 2004, 118.
- 76.
For example, when Belisarius recruited in Thrace before his second campaign in Italy (Procopius Wars 7.10.1). See Ravegnani 1998, 26.
- 77.
Procopius Secret History 6.2–3.
- 78.
Procopius Wars 8.29.13–28 is a rare example of named enlisted soldiers as active agents in Procopius’ story. See Chap. 7.
- 79.
Treadgold 1995, 90; Jones 1964, 1:634.
- 80.
Jones 1964, 1:634. Compare the analysis of Treadgold 1995, 90–1 and Ravegnani 1998, 33–5.
- 81.
Jones 1964, 1:633.
- 82.
Jones 1964, 1:658. See Chap. 4, ‘Appointment: Gaining a Position.’
- 83.
Treadgold 1995, 149.
- 84.
Procopius Secret History 24.2–6.
- 85.
Elton 2007, 306.
- 86.
Maurice Strategikon 1.5.
- 87.
Jones 1964, 1:391.
- 88.
See Chap. 4.
- 89.
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Parnell, D.A. (2017). Byzantine Army Structure. In: Justinian's Men. New Approaches to Byzantine History and Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-56204-3_2
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