Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Counterterrorism and Society: The Contradiction of the Surveillance State – Understanding the Relationship Among Communities, State Authorities, and Society

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Palgrave Handbook of Global Counterterrorism Policy

Abstract

In liberal democracies the relationship among communities, state authorities and by extension the political establishment and broader society, to a large extent determines the success of counterterrorism (CT) operations. Communities’ engagement with authorities is damaged by covert surveillance, and practices that appear to undermine perceptions of procedural fairness, weakening individuals’ and communities’ perceptions of legitimacy and trust in the state and society. Political debates about national identity, migration, and othering further enhance a sense of alienation felt by Muslim communities and erodes their shared sense of identity and affinity with the wider society. Such barriers, a lack of trust and perceptions of alienation decrease the likelihood of engagement, necessitating more intrusive surveillance measures to obtain the intelligence to reduce the threat of terrorism. Thus, perceptions of procedural fairness are further undermined, affecting trust and the perceptions of legitimacy, stifling future engagement with the state and the wider society, which are crucial for successful CT operations.

Do you begin to see then, what kind of world we are creating? It is the exact opposite of the stupid hedonistic Utopias that the old reformers imagined. A world of fear and treachery and torment a world of trampling and being trampled upon a world which will grow not less but more merciless as it refines itself.

(George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four)

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abdallah-Pretceille, M. (2003). Former et éduquer en contexte hétérogène: Pour un humanisme du divers. Paris: Anthopos.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abu-Lughod, L. (1991). Writing against culture. In R. Fox (Ed.), Recapturing anthropology: Working in the present (pp. 137–162). Santa Fe: School of American Research Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, C. (2010). Islamophobia. Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, C. (2012). A review of the evidence relating to the represenation of Muslims and Islam in the British media. Birmingham: University of Birmingham.

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Saadi, Y. (2015). On Charlie Hebdo, freedom of speech, terrorism, and the value of lives. Retrieved May 15, 2015, from https://www.opendemocracy.net/arab-awakening/yazan-alsaadi/on-charlie-hebdo-freedom-of-speech-terrorism-and-value-of-lives.

  • Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Asad, T. (2010). Thinking about terrorism and just war. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 23(1), 3–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ash, T. (2006). What young British Muslims say can be shocking – some of it is also true. Retrieved January 25, 2010, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2006/aug/10/comment.race.

  • Awan, I. (2011). Paving the way for extremism: How preventing the symptoms does not cure the disease of terrorism. Journal of Terrorism Research, 2(3). Retrieved from http://ojs.st-andrews.ac.uk/index.php/jtr/article/view/224.

  • Bartlett, J., Birdwell, J., & Littler, M. (2011). The new face of digital populism. London: Demos.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, Z. (2004). Identity. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, Z. (2006). Liquid fear. Polity: London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayley, D., & Weisburd, D. (2011). Cops and spooks: The role of police in counterterrorism. In D. Bayley, I. Hakimi, T. Feucht, S. Perry, & L. Felson (Eds.), To protect and to serve (pp. 81–99). Springer: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • BBC. (2015a). Arab uprisings. Retrieved May 16, 2015, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12813859.

  • BBC. (2015b). Police forces all face major budget cuts. Retrieved May 18, 2015, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-31771456.

  • Beetham, D. (1991). The legitimation of power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, I. (2014). Medina in Birmingham, Najaf in brent: Inside British Islam. London: Hurst.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowling, B., & Foster, J. (2002). Policing and the police. In M. Maguire, R. Morgan, & R. Reiner (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of criminology (pp. 980–1033). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brodeur, J.-P. (1983). High policing and low policing: Remarks about the policing of political activities. Social Problems, 30(5), 507–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brodeur, J.-P. (2010). The policing web. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, S., & Wohlforth, W. (2008). World out of balance: International relations and the challenges of American primacy. Princeton/New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Buruma, I., & Margalit, A. (2004). Occidentalism: A short history of anti-westernism. London: Atlantic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bush, G. (2001). Text: President bush addresses the nation. Retrieved May 13, 2015, from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/specials/attacked/transcripts/bushaddress_092001.html.

  • CNN. (2001). Bush says it is time for action. Retrieved May 11, 2015, from http://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/11/06/ret.bush.coalition/index.html.

  • Crawford, A. (2011). Regulating civility, governing security and policing (dis)order under conditions of uncertainty. In J. R. Blad, M. Hildebrandt, K. Rozemond, M. Schuilenburg, & P. V. Calstar (Eds.), Governing security under the rule of law?. Boom International Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeLuca, T. (1995). The two faces of political apathy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dervin, F. (2010). Assessing intercultural competences in languages learning and teaching: A critical review of current efforts. In F. Dervin & E. Suomela-Salmi (Eds.), New Approaches to Assessment in Higher Education (pp. 157–173). Bern: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeVotta, N. (2015). From counter-terrorism to soft-authoritarianism. In L. Jarvis & M. Lister (Eds.), Critical perspectives on counter-terrorism (pp. 210–231). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diarmaid, H. (2015). Police legitimacy, ideology and qualitative methods: A critique of procedural justice theory. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodd, V. (2015). Police warn big budget cuts will lead to ‘paramilitary’ force. Retrieved May 18, 2015, from http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/may/17/police-warn-big-budget-cuts-will-lead-to-paramilitary-force?CMP=share_btn_tw.

  • Durkheim, E. (1982). The rules of sociological method. (S. Lukes, Ed., W. Halls, Trans.). London: The Free Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Dusza, K. (1989). Max Weber’s conception of the state. International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, 3(1), 71–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duyvesteyn, I. (2001). How new is the new terrorism? Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 27(5), 439–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EDL. (2015). Islam and refugees. Retrieved May 13, 2015, from https://www.englishdefenceleague.org/.

  • Ensink, T., & Sauer, C. (2003). Framing and perspectivising in discourse. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Fenton, S. (1984). Durkheim and modern sociology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez, A. (2015). Germany’s new far right. Retrieved June 17, 2015, from https://www.jacobinmag.com/author/anthony-fano-fernandez/.

  • Friedman, J. (1999). The hybridization of roots and the abhorrence of the Bush. In M. Featherstone & S. Lash (Eds.), Spaces of culture: City, nation, world (pp. 230–256). London: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gillespie, A. (2006). Becoming the other. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilroy, P. (1997). Diaspora and the detours of identity. In K. Woodward (Ed.), Identity and difference (pp. 299–346). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goddard, S., & Krebs, R. (2015). Rhetoric, legitimation, and grand strategy. Security Studies, 24(1), 5–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldsmith, A. (2005). Police reform and the problem of trust. Theoretical Criminology, 9(4), 443–470.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greer, S. (2015). The myth of the ‘securitized Muslim community’: The social impact of post 9/11 counter-terrorist law and policy in the West. In C. Walker & G. Lennon (Eds.), Routledge handbook on law and terrorism. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hacking, I. (2000). The social construction of what?. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, S., Critcher, C., Jefferson, T., Clarke, J., & Roberts, B. (1978). Policing the crisis: Mugging, the state and law and order. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, A. (2005). Culture against society. Society, 42, 59–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heaton, R. (2000). The prospects for intelligence‐led policing: Some Historical and quantitative considerations. Policing and Society, 9(4), 337–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzfeld, M. (1997). Cultural intimacy: Social poetics in the nation-state. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hickman, M., Thomas, L., Silvestri, S., & Nickels, H. (2011). ‘Suspect Communities’? Counter-terrorism policy, the press, and the impact on Irish and Muslim communities in Britain. London: London Metropolitan University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch, A. V., Garland, D., Wakefield, A., & Crawford, A. (Eds.). (2000). Situational crime prevention, urban governance and trust relations. In The ethics of situational crime prevention (pp. 193–214). Oxford: Hart Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • HM Government. (2011). CONTEST: The United Kingdom’s strategy for countering terrorism (No. Cm 8123). London: HMSO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobsbawm, E. (1996). Identify politics and the left. New Left Review, 217, 38–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holehouse, M. (2015). Quarter of British Muslims sympathise with Charlie Hebdo terrorists. Retrieved May 13, 2015, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/11433776/Quarter-of-British-Muslims-sympathise-with-Charlie-Hebdo-terrorists.html.

  • Hough, M., Jackson, J., Bradford, B., Myhill, A., & Quinton, P. (2010). Procedural justice, trust, and institutional legitimacy. Policing, 4(3), 203–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • House of Commons Home Affairs Committee. (2014). Counter-terrorism: Seventh report of session 2013–14 (No. HC 231). London: HMSO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Innes, M., Roberts, C., & Innes, H. (2011). Assessing the effect of prevent policing: A report to the Association of chief police officers. Cardiff: UPSI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jonathan, T. (2010). Police involvement in counter-terrorism and public attitudes towards the police in Israel – 1998–2007. British Journal of Criminology, 50(4), 748–771.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, J., & Patapan, H. (2010). The artless art: Leadership and the limits of democratic rhetoric. Australian Journal of Political Science, 45, 371–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kapellidi, C. (2008). Framing and perspectivizing in discourse. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(3), 577–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kundnani, A. (2014). Muslims are coming! Islamophobia, extremism and the domestic war on terror. London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loader, I., & Walker, N. (2001). Policing as a public good: Reconstituting the connections between policing and the state. Theoretical Criminology, 5(1), 9–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loader, N., & Walker. (2007). Locating the public interest in transnational policing. In A. Goldsmith & J. Sheptycki (Eds.), Crafting transnational policing: Police capacity-building and global policing reform (pp. 111–146). Oxford: Hart Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luhmann, N. (1979). Trust and power: Two works. London: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maguire, M. (2000). Policing by risks and targets: Some dimensions and implications of intelligence‐led crime control. Policing and Society, 9(4), 315–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malik, M. (2009). Extreme speech and liberalism. In I. Hare & J. Weinstein (Eds.), Extreme speech and democracy (pp. 96–120). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Mancini, S. (2009). The power of symbols and symbols as power: Secularism and religion as guarantors of cultural convergence. Cardozo Law Review, 30, 2629–2668.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, L. (2008). Algeria: Is an authoritarian regime more effective in combating terrorist movements? In S. Cohen (Ed.), Democracies at war against terrorism: A comparative perspective (pp. 233–249). New York: Palgrave MacMillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGee, D. (2008). The end of Multiculturalism? Terrorism, integration and human rights. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Migration Watch. (2015). What is the problem. Retrieved May 14, 2015, from http://www.migrationwatchuk.org/what-is-the-problem.

  • Morgan, R., & Newburn, T. (1997). The future of policing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, R., & Smith, D. J. (Eds.). (1989). Coming to terms with policing: Perspectives on policy. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mudde, C. (2015). What freedom of speech? Of foxes, chickens, and #JeSuisCharlie. Retrieved May 15, 2015, from https://www.opendemocracy.net/can-europe-make-it/cas-mudde/what-freedom-of-speech-of-foxes-chickens-and-jesuischarlie.

  • Mythen, G., Walklate, S., & Khan, F. (2009). ‘I’m a Muslim, but I’m not a Terrorist’: Victimization, risky identities and the performance of safety. British Journal of Criminology, 49(6), 736–754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neocleous, M. (2000). The fabrication of social order: A critical theory of police power. London: Pluto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, P. (2009). Old and new terrorism. London: Polity.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nilssona, P.-E. (2015). ‘Secular Retaliation’: A case study of integralist populism, anti-Muslim discourse, and (Il)liberal discourse on secularism in contemporary France. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 16(1), 87–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norton, A. (2013). On the Muslim question. Princeton/New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Nye, J. S. (2005). Soft power: The means to success in world politics (New edition). New York: Public Affairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Omand, D. (2010). Securing the state. London: Hurst & Co Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orwell, G. (1946). Politics and the English language. Retrieved May 30, 2010, from http://theorwellprize.co.uk/george-orwell/by-orwell/essays-and-other-works/politics-and-the-english-language/.

  • Orwell, G. (1954). Nineteen Eighty-four. London: Penguin Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pantazis, C., & Pemberton, S. (2009). From ‘old’ to the ‘new’ Suspect communities: Examing the impacts of recent UK Counter-terrorist legislation. British Journal of Criminology, 49(5), 646–666.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pantazis, C., & Pemberton, S. (2013). Resisting the advance of the security state: The impact of frameworks of resistance on the UK’s securitisation agenda. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 41(4), 358–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pegida. (2015). PEGIDA – Patriotische Europäer: Geminsam sind wir stark. Retrieved May 14, 2015, from https://www.facebook.com/pegidaevdresden/info?ref=page_internal#!/pegidaevdresden/info?tab=page_info.

  • Phillips, D. (2006). Parallel lives? Challenging discourses of British Muslim self-segregation. Society and Space, 24(1), 25–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pokalovaa, E. (2013). Authoritarian regimes against terrorism: Lessons from China. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 6(2), 279–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quinney, R. (2001). The social reality of crime. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raslera, K., & Thompson, W. (2009). Looking for waves of terrorism. Terrorism and political violence, 21(1), 28–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, D., & Eck, J. (1994). The new police order: Effectiveness, equity and efficiency in community policing. In D. Rosenbaum (Ed.), The Challenge of community policing: Testing the promises (pp. 3–26). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, D., Schuck, A., Costello, S., Hawkins, D., & Ring, M. (2005). Attitudes toward the police: The effects of direct and vicarious experience. Police Quarterly, 8(3), 343–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Said, E. (1979). Orientalism. Vintage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sardar, Z., & Davies, M. (2010). Freeze framing Muslims: Hollywood and the slideshow of Western imagination. Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies, 12(2), 239–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, C. (1996). The concept of the political. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selznick, P., Nonet, P., & Vollmer, H. (1969). Law, society, and industrial justice. London: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, J., & Siegel, D. (2010). Is this paper dangerous? Balancing secrecy and openness in counterterrorism. Security Studies, 19(1), 66–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, G. (2012). From dictatorship to democracy: A conceptual framework for liberation. New York: New Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheptycki, J. (2007). High policing in the security control society. Policing, 1(1), 70–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shipler, D. (2015). Pamela Geller and the Anti-Islam Movement. Retrieved May 14, 2015, from http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/pamela-geller-and-the-anti-islam-movement.

  • Skoczylis, J. (2015). Local prevention of terrorism: Strategy and practice in the fight against terror. London: Palgrave MacMillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Stoutland, S. E. (2001). The multiple dimensions of trust in Resident/Police Relations in Boston. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(3), 226–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sunshine, J., & Tyler, T. (2003). The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing. Law & Society Review, 37(3), 513–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sunstein, C. (2003). Terrorism and probability neglect. The Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 26(2/3), 121–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tankebe, J. (2010). Public confidence in the police testing the effects of public experiences of police in Ghana. British Journal of Criminology, 50(2), 296–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The Guardian. (n.d.). The NSA Files: Decoded. Retrieved April 2, 2015, from http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/the-nsa-files.

  • The New York Times. (2006). President Bush’s Speech on Terrorism. Retrieved November 5, 2015, from http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/06/washington/06bush_transcript.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.

  • The Prime Minister’s Office. (2015). Counter-Extremism Bill – National Security Council meeting. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/news/counter-extremism-bill-national-security-council-meeting.

  • The Washington Times. (2015). George W. Bush: Islamic State shows ‘evil is real.’ Retrieved November 5, 2015, from http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/feb/12/george-w-bush-islamic-state-shows-evil-is-real/#!

  • The White House. (2015). National security strategy. Washington, DC: The Office of the President of the United States of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, T. (2004). Enhancing Police Legitimacy. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 593, 84–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, H., & Wade, J. (1996). Shock and Awe: Achieving rapid dominance. Washington, DC: NDU Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldron, J. (2006). Safety and security. Nebraska Law Review, 85(2), 455–495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, C. (2009). Blackstone’s guide to the anti-terrorism legislation (2nd edn.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, C. (2011). Terrorism and the law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber, M. (1980). The national state and economic policy (Freiburg address). Economy and Society, 9(4), 428–449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weisburd, D., Hasisi, B., Jonathan, T., & Aviv, G. (2010). Terrorist threats and police performance a study of Israeli communities. British Journal of Criminology, 50(4), 725–747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, C. (2011). Police governance – community, policing, and justice in the modern UK. Taiwan in Comparative Perspective, 3, 50–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zedner, L. (2005). Securing liberty in the face of terror: Reflections from criminal justice. Journal of Law and Society, 32(4), 507–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zedner, L. (2006). Policing before and after the police the historical antecedents of contemporary crime control. British Journal of Criminology, 46(1), 78–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zedner, L. (2007). Pre-crime and post-criminology? Theoretical Criminology, 11(2), 261–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK

    Joshua Skoczylis

Authors
  1. Joshua Skoczylis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joshua Skoczylis .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of International Studies, University of Trento, Trento, Trento, Italy

    Scott Nicholas Romaniuk

  2. Department of Political Science and International Studies, McDaniel College , Westminster, Maryland, USA

    Francis Grice

  3. Department of Political and Social Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Catania, Italy

    Daniela Irrera

  4. DefenceReport, Salt Spring Island, British Columbia, Canada

    Stewart Webb

Copyright information

© 2017 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Skoczylis, J. (2017). Counterterrorism and Society: The Contradiction of the Surveillance State – Understanding the Relationship Among Communities, State Authorities, and Society. In: Romaniuk, S., Grice, F., Irrera, D., Webb, S. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Global Counterterrorism Policy. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-55769-8_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation