Abstract
Chapter 4 examines Lloyd Alexander’s series The Chronicles of Prydain (The Book of Three, 1964, The Black Cauldron, 1965, The Castle of Llyr, 1966, Taran Wanderer, 1967, and The High King, 1968). The chapter focuses on ideas of interpretation and authenticity when adapting the wider Welsh tradition (from the Mabinogion to the Welsh Triads and the legend of Taliesin) for a child readership. Alexander’s books take place in a secondary world, for which Wales is the blueprint, and the chapter discusses how they blend disparate ideas about the “Celtic” past with often-contested interpretations of the medieval Welsh material.
I have borrowed the phrase “Building Fantasy upon Forgery” from Ronald Hutton, who has appositely used it to characterize Robert Graves’s creative reshaping of forged documents (posing as medieval Welsh texts), which Lady Charlotte Guest unwittingly included in the notes to her translation of the Mabinogion. See Ronald Hutton, The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), 320.
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Notes
- 1.
Alexander’s original outline of the Prydain books, submitted to his publishers for approval, clearly stated that the target audience would be: “11–14 year-old readers.” Cited in James S. Jacobs, “Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography” (EdD diss., University of Georgia, 1978), 547.
- 2.
Lloyd Alexander, The Foundling and Other Tales of Prydain (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1999). Out of the eight stories in the more recent, expanded edition (1999) two had already appeared as picture books during the time the main series was still being published: Coll and His White Pig (1965b), and The Truthful Harp (1967), both illustrated by Evaline Ness.
- 3.
Elizabeth Lane, “Lloyd Alexander’s Chronicles of Prydain and the Welsh Tradition,” Orcrist 7 (1973): 25–9; C.W. Sullivan III, Welsh Celtic Myth in Modern Fantasy, 56–65; Kath Filmer-Davies, Fantasy Fiction and Welsh Myth: Tales of Belonging (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996), 62–78; Donna R. White, A Century of Welsh Myth in Children’s Literature (Westport, CT; London: Greenwood Press, 1998), 97–120; Michael O. Tunnell, The Prydain Companion: A Reference Guide to Lloyd Alexander’s Prydain Chronicles (New York: Holt, 2003).
- 4.
Mark J.P. Wolf, Building Imaginary Worlds: The Theory and History of Subcreation (New York: Routledge, 2012), 154–5.
- 5.
I am using Mendlesohn’s terminology for the category also termed “high” fantasy. See Farah Mendlesohn, Rhetorics of Fantasy. (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 2008).
- 6.
Richard West, “The Tolkinians: Some Introductory Reflections on Alan Garner, Carol Kendall, and Lloyd Alexander,” Orcrist 2 (1967–1968): 10. For Tolkien’s identification of Middle-earth with north-western Europe in an imaginary past, see Dimitra Fimi, Tolkien, Race and Cultural History: From Fairies to Hobbits (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 163–5.
- 7.
Alexander claimed that “all of those names come from research. They come from history and mythology. And they’re quite old many thousands of years old in fact. So I didn’t invent any of them. I found them and chose names that seemed to suit the personalities.” See Lloyd Alexander, “Lloyd Alexander Interview Transcript,” 1999, http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/lloyd-alexander-interview-transcript. This is not, strictly speaking, true: names such as Doli, Arianllyn, Teleria, and Magg are Welsh-sounding but not original Welsh names (either medieval or modern). A name that should also be noted here is that of Eilonwy, the main female character in the series. Her name does not come from the Mabinogion or any other medieval Welsh text. It is, rather, attested in a nineteenth-century Welsh literary fairy story by Owen Wynne Jones (who wrote under his bardic name, Glasynys), which was translated in the first volume of Sir John Rhŷs’s Celtic Folklore and may have been Alexander’s source. See Sir John Rhŷs, Celtic Folklore: Welsh and Manx (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1901), 117–23.
- 8.
The exact location of Caer Dathyl, as it appears in the Mabinogion, is not certain, but it is probably “somewhere on the coast between Dinas Dinlle and Caernarfon.” See Sioned Davies, trans., The Mabinogion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 240. It is, therefore, adjacent to – but not quite within – the Snowdonia national park. The Welsh Annwn has been variously localized in Dyfed, or in an island across the sea, but Robert Graves links it with the Prescelly Mountains; Robert Graves, The White Goddess: A Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth (London: Faber and Faber, 1952), 58. Alexander adopts this location, as well as Graves’s spelling (the current spelling is “Preseli”). Anglesey’s Welsh name is Ynys Môn, and Alexander uses its Latin name, the island of Mona.
- 9.
Lloyd Alexander, The Book of Three (New York: Holt, 2011), viii (emphasis added).
- 10.
Cited in Tunnell, The Prydain Companion, 29.
- 11.
Lloyd Alexander, The Black Cauldron (New York: Holt, 2011), vii.
- 12.
Lloyd Alexander, The Castle of Llyr (New York: Holt, 2011), ix (emphasis added).
- 13.
Lloyd Alexander, The High King (New York: Holt, 2011), ix.
- 14.
Jacobs, “Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography,” 143–4.
- 15.
Lloyd Alexander, “Lloyd Alexander Interview Transcript.”
- 16.
In Leonard S. Marcus, The Wand in the Word: Conversations with Writers of Fantasy (Cambridge, Mass.: Candlewick Press, 2006), 8–9.
- 17.
Lloyd Alexander, Taran Wanderer (New York: Holt, 2011), ix.
- 18.
Quoted in Jacobs, “Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography,” 264.
- 19.
Lloyd Alexander, “The Flat-heeled Muse,” Horn Book Magazine 41 (1965): 142.
- 20.
Quoted in Jacobs, “Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography,” 265.
- 21.
Lloyd Alexander, Time Cat: The Remarkable Journeys of Jason and Gareth (New York: Puffin Books, 1996), 53.
- 22.
See David N. Dumville, Saint Patrick A.D. 493–1993 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1993), 90.
- 23.
Jacobs, “Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography,” 264.
- 24.
Margaret Cooper Gay, How to Live with a Cat ([S.l.]: Simon & Schuster, 1969), 17.
- 25.
Jacobs, “Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography,” 266.
- 26.
This chart still exists within Lloyd Alexander’s papers at the Free Library of Philadelphia and is reproduced here: http://libwww.freelibrary.org/diglib/ecw.cfm?ItemID=alex00022.
- 27.
Alexander, “The Flat-heeled Muse,” 143. The book Alexander refers to here seems to be T.W. Rolleston’s Myths and Legends of the Celtic Race (1911), which includes “genealogical tables” of the “Gods of the House of Don” and the “Gods of the House of Llyr.” T.W. Rolleston, Myths and Legends of the Celtic Race (London: G.G. Harrap & Co, 1911), 350–1.
- 28.
Alexander, “The Flat-heeled Muse,” 142–3.
- 29.
Lloyd Alexander, “Substance and Fantasy,” Library Journal 91 (1966): 6157.
- 30.
See Alexander, “The Flat-heeled Muse,” and Alexander, “Substance and Fantasy.”
- 31.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 34–5.
- 32.
E.g. West, “The Tolkinians”; Lane, “Lloyd Alexander’s Chronicles of Prydain and the Welsh Tradition.”
- 33.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 175.
- 34.
Cited in Jacobs, “Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography,” 547.
- 35.
This was Ann Durell’s suggestion. See Jacobs, “Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography,” 552.
- 36.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 7.
- 37.
Davies, Mabinogion, 48; Rachel Bromwich, ed. and trans., Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Triads of the Island of Britain (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2014), 50–58.
- 38.
Davies, Mabinogion, 199.
- 39.
John Carey, “Otherworld,” in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, Vol. 4, edited by John T. Koch, 1403–1406 (Santa Barbara; Oxford: ABC-Clio, 1405.
- 40.
Alexander, The Book of Three, viii.
- 41.
According to the tale “Math son of Mathonwy could not live unless his feet were in the lap of a virgin,” Davies, Mabinogion, 47.
- 42.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 10.
- 43.
Lady Charlotte Guest, trans., The Mabinogion (London: Bernard Quaritch, 1877), 422.
- 44.
Don is the mother of Gwydion in the Mabinogion while Beli Mawr appears as the father of Arianrhod, Gwydion’s sister, in the Welsh Triads. See Davies, Mabinogion, 47; Bromwich, Triads, 81.
- 45.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 7.
- 46.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 6.
- 47.
West, “The Tolkinians,” 11; C.W. Sullivan III, Welsh Celtic Myth in Modern Fantasy (Westport, CT; London: Greenwood Press, 1989), 59; White, A Century of Welsh Myth in Children’s Literature, 105, 109.
- 48.
Juliette Wood, “Early Celtic Scholarship and the Romantic Celt: Charles Squire,” introduction to The Mythology of the British Islands, by Charles Squire (London: Wordsworth, 2000), 10.
- 49.
- 50.
Squire, The Mythology of the British Islands, 252.
- 51.
See note 28 above.
- 52.
Rolleston, Myths and Legends of the Celtic Race, 378.
- 53.
Marged Haycock, ed. and trans., Legendary Poems from the Book of Taliesin (Aberystwyth, Wales: CMCS, 2007), 435–6.
- 54.
Incidentally, the “Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain” also include cloaks of invisibility and chessboards that play by themselves, as well as magical weapons such as “Dyrnwyn (‘White-hilt’), the Sword of Rhydderch the Generous” which would “burst into flame from its hilt to its tip” if “a well-born man drew it himself”; and numerous vessels of plenty, including “The Hamper of Gwyddno Garanhir” which would multiply any quantity of food. See Bromwich, Triads, 259. The last two served as inspiration for the magical black sword Dyrnwyn, and Gurgi’s “wallet of food which shall be always full,” Alexander, The Book of Three, 181. It has been hypothesized that all of the Thirteen Treasures may have been originally Otherworld objects won by different heroes, Bromwich, Triads, cx. This works well with Alexander’s conception of Arawn as the thief of wonderful objects from mankind and Annuvin as a treasure trove (see above). The list of the Thirteen Treasures was included in the notes of Lady Guest’s translation of the Mabinogion.
- 55.
Patrick Sims-Williams, “The Early Welsh Arthurian Poems,” in Arthur of the Welsh: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval Welsh Literature, edited by Rachel Bromwich et al. (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1991), 54–7.
- 56.
Alexander, The Black Cauldron, 35.
- 57.
See Sims-Williams, “The Early Welsh Arthurian Poems,” 42.
- 58.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 26.
- 59.
See Ronald Hutton, Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2009), 175–9.
- 60.
Edward Davies, The Mythology and Rites of the British Druids (London: J. Booth, 1809), 474, 454.
- 61.
Alexander, The High King, 240.
- 62.
See Ann Swinfen, In Defence of Fantasy: A Study of the Genre in English and American Literature since 1945 (London: Routledge, 1984); Norma Bagnall, “An American Hero in Welsh Fantasy: The Mabinogion, Alan Garner and Lloyd Alexander,” New Welsh Review 2, no. 4 (1990): 25–9; White, A Century of Welsh Myth in Children’s Literature, 101–2.
- 63.
See Bromwich, Triads, liii–lxix
- 64.
Filmer-Davies, Fantasy Fiction and Welsh Myth, 170.
- 65.
Filmer-Davies, Fantasy Fiction and Welsh Myth, 64.
- 66.
Bromwich, Triads, 52.
- 67.
Bromwich, Triads, 59, 61.
- 68.
Bromwich, Triads, 55–6. In the first draft of The Book of Three, Hen Wen is actually portrayed as having mated with Twrch Trwyth and produced piglets. The capture of Hen Wen by Arawn and the slaughter of the piglets caused Twrch Trwyth to run wild in a rampage across the countryside, just as his namesake does in “Culhwch and Olwen” while pursued by Arthur and his men. See Lloyd Alexander, “The Book of Three, First Draft, Corrected Typescript with Attached Annotations,” (FLP.CLRC.ALEXANDER Series II, xv, a., Box 17, Folder 14, Free Library of Philadelphia, Children’s Literature Research Collection, 1964), 32–3. Hen Wen is discussed further below.
- 69.
Bromwich, Triads, 115.
- 70.
Guest, Mabinogion, 334.
- 71.
See Davies, Mabinogion, 199.
- 72.
Alexander, The Black Cauldron, 27.
- 73.
Alexander, The Black Cauldron, 43.
- 74.
Alexander, The Black Cauldron, 173.
- 75.
“Fflewddwr Fflam Wledig” appears as another name in the long list of Arthur’s household that Culhwch invokes as the guarantors of his gift in “Culhwch and Olwen”; and he also appears as one of the long list of Arthur’s counsellors in “The Dream of Rhonabwy.” Davies, Mabinogion, 184, 225.
- 76.
Guest, Mabinogion, 191.
- 77.
“Fflam” means “flame,” see Bromwich, Triads, 353, but Alexander picked this name out of the three “sovereigns of the Court of Arthur” because it sounded “right” for the personality of this particular character: “I love the name because it has all kinds of connotations – flim-flam and flying and flute playing. It’s a fine name, very expressive to my ear…,” cited in Jacobs, “Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography,” 494. Euphony, therefore, rather than a clear sense of what the name means was Alexander’s main rationale on this occasion.
- 78.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 88–9 (italics in the original).
- 79.
Hutton, Blood and Mistletoe, 147–8.
- 80.
Rachel Bromwich, “Trioedd Ynys Prydain” in Welsh Literature and Scholarship: The G.J. Williams Memorial Lecture Delivered at University College, Cardiff, November 22, 1968 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1969), 5, 31–2, 44–6.
- 81.
See Bromwich, “Trioedd Ynys Prydain”, 12. Bromwich shows how Iolo cleverly created an “elaborate verbal spider’s web around his alleged sources,” which made it very difficult to prove that these sources were not genuine. Bromwich, “Trioedd Ynys Prydain”, 13.
- 82.
Bromwich, “Trioedd Ynys Prydain”, 18.
- 83.
See Bromwich, Triads, 17 for the genuine Triad.
- 84.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 121–2 (emphasis added).
- 85.
Guest, Mabinogion, 134 (emphasis added).
- 86.
It is worth mentioning that Sir John Rhŷs quoted from this triad both in Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Celtic Heathendom (1892) and in Celtic Folklore, Welsh and Manx (1901) as if it recorded a genuine folkloric tradition.
- 87.
Catherine McKenna, “bard [2] comparison of the professional poet in early Wales and Ireland,” in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, Vol. I, edited by John T. Koch (Santa Barbara; Oxford: ABC-Clio, 2006), 170.
- 88.
See Hutton, Blood and Mistletoe, 156–8.
- 89.
See Tunnell, The Prydain Companion, 124, 164.
- 90.
Haycock, Legendary Poems from the Book of Taliesin, 9–11. In the medieval Welsh material we seem to have two versions of Taliesin: a historical (or perceived as historical) bard of the sixth century, often named Ben Beirdd (“Chief of Bards/Poets”) and appearing in the ninth-century Historia Brittonum; and the Taliesin of legend, who is associated with prophecy, shape-shifting, and the supernatural. See John T. Koch, “Taliesin [1] the historical Taliesin,” in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, Vol. V, edited by John T. Koch (Santa Barbara; Oxford: ABC-Clio, 2006), 1652–3; and Marged Haycock, “Taliesin [2] the Taliesin tradition,” in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, Vol. V, edited by John T. Koch (Santa Barbara; Oxford: ABC-Clio, 2006), 1653–6. Alexander keeps the title of the “historical” Taliesin but leans towards a fictional representation of the folkloric bard.
- 91.
Alexander, The High King, 111.
- 92.
Lloyd Alexander, “The Book of Three, First Draft,” 3.
- 93.
Guest, Mabinogion, 269 (emphasis added).
- 94.
Guest, Mabinogion, 269–70.
- 95.
Graves, The White Goddess, 113–16. We shall return to Graves’s idea of a secret alphabet of the bards in Chapter 5.
- 96.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 89 (emphasis added).
- 97.
Alexander, The High King, 25, 27–8.
- 98.
Alexander, The Black Cauldron, 89–90.
- 99.
See Rev. J. Williams ab Ithel, Barddas: or, A Collection of Original Documents, Illustrative of the Theology, Wisdom, and Usages of the Bardo-Druidic System of the Isle of Britain, with translations and notes (Llandovery: D.J. Roderio; London: Longman & Co, 1858), 23.
- 100.
Idris Foster, “Gwynn ap Nudd,” in Duanaire Finn: The Book of the Lays of Fionn, Vol. III, edited by Gerard Murphy (London: Irish Texts Society, 1953), 198–204; Angelika H. Rüdiger, “Gwyn ap Nudd: Transfigurations of a Character on the Way from Medieval Literature to Neo-pagan Beliefs,” Gramarye 2 (2012): 29–47. We shall return to Gwyn ap Nudd and his transformations in Chapter 6.
- 101.
See Rolleston, Myths and Legends of the Celtic Race, 84–5.
- 102.
The Horned King himself may be Alexander’s reimagining of a horned figure that appears in European Iron Age iconography, and who has been named “Cernunnos” based on only one inscription (which is not even complete) and retrospectively applied to every horned figure in archaeological finds of the “right” period. See Ronald Hutton, Pagan Britain (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2013), 240–1.
- 103.
See Haycock, Legendary Poems from the Book of Taliesin, 312–14.
- 104.
A story that resembles Finn and the Salmon of Knowledge (Irish – see also Chapter 3) or Sigurd and the dragon’s heart (Icelandic).
- 105.
Graves, The White Goddess, 67–8.
- 106.
For the most contemporary etymology see Haycock, Legendary Poems from the Book of Taliesin, 314.
- 107.
Hutton, The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles, 322–3.
- 108.
Wood, “The Concept of the Goddess,” 11.
- 109.
Graves, The White Goddess, 99–100, 209–10, 221–2, 315.
- 110.
Davies, Mabinogion, 197.
- 111.
Lane, “Lloyd Alexander’s Chronicles of Prydain and the Welsh Tradition,” 27.
- 112.
Alexander, “Substance and Fantasy,” 6157.
- 113.
Alexander, The Black Cauldron, 199.
- 114.
Alexander, The High King, 233–4.
- 115.
See Alexander, The Black Cauldron, 116–17 and Alexander, The High King, 232–3.
- 116.
White, A Century of Welsh Myth in Children’s Literature, 106.
- 117.
Alexander, The Black Cauldron, 103, 99.
- 118.
Alexander, The Black Cauldron, 104.
- 119.
Alexander, The Black Cauldron, 104–5.
- 120.
Alexander, The Black Cauldron, 105.
- 121.
White, A Century of Welsh Myth in Children’s Literature, 107.
- 122.
Guest, Mabinogion, 280.
- 123.
Graves, The White Goddess, 49–50, 341.
- 124.
Lloyd Alexander, “The Truth About Fantasy,” Top of the News 24 (January 1968): 172.
- 125.
Graves’s only evidence of a connection between Arianrhod of Welsh medieval literature and Ariadne of classical mythology is that their names sound similar. Like many of Graves’s theories, neither subtle, nor likely to withstand the rigour of academic interrogation for too many minutes.
- 126.
Graves, The White Goddess, 98.
- 127.
Lane, “Lloyd Alexander’s Chronicles of Prydain and the Welsh Tradition,” 26.
- 128.
White, A Century of Welsh Myth in Children’s Literature, 108, 119.
- 129.
White, A Century of Welsh Myth in Children’s Literature, 107–8.
- 130.
White, A Century of Welsh Myth in Children’s Literature, 108.
- 131.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 54.
- 132.
Graves, The White Goddess, 70.
- 133.
White, A Century of Welsh Myth in Children’s Literature, 105; Lane, “Lloyd Alexander’s Chronicles of Prydain and the Welsh Tradition,” 26.
- 134.
Quoted in White, A Century of Welsh Myth in Children’s Literature, 106.
- 135.
For a recent feminist reading of Eilonwy see Rodney M.D. Fierce, “Isn’t it Romantic? Sacrificing Agency for Romance in the Chronicles of Prydain,” Mythlore 33, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 2015): 75–93.
- 136.
Alexander, “The Book of Three, First Draft,” 68.
- 137.
Alexander, “The Book of Three, First Draft,” 106.
- 138.
Alexander, “The Book of Three, First Draft,” 110.
- 139.
Alexander, The Book of Three, 178.
- 140.
Alexander, “The Book of Three, First Draft,” 109.
- 141.
Bromwich, Triads, 146.
- 142.
Graves, The White Goddess, 109. Also Charles Squire, following Sir John Rhŷs’s Studies in the Arthurian Legend (1891), identified Arthur as a newer “deity” that substituted Gwydion, and therefore argued that it must have been originally Gwydion who lead the Otherworld expedition in Preideu Annwfyn and who was incarcerated in Oeth-Anoeth. Squire points out that Gwydion “endured a long imprisonment” and that “the sufferings he underwent made him a bard.” See Squire, The Mythology of the British Islands, 305. This chimes particularly well with Alexander’s portrayal of Gwydion’s ordeal in prison and offers – I think – compelling evidence that Alexander read Squire’s work.
- 143.
Alexander, “The Book of Three, First Draft,” 110.
- 144.
Alexander, “The Book of Three, First Draft,” 111–12.
- 145.
Alexander, “The Book of Three, First Draft,” 113.
- 146.
Quoted in Jacobs, “Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography,” 554–5.
- 147.
Graves, The White Goddess, 222.
- 148.
Graves, The White Goddess, 221.
- 149.
Alexander, “Substance and Fantasy,” 6157.
- 150.
Alexander, “The Truth about Fantasy,” 171.
- 151.
Alexander, “The Book of Three, First Draft,” 15.
- 152.
Alexander, “The Book of Three, First Draft,” 25.
- 153.
Filmer-Davies, Fantasy Fiction and Welsh Myth, 66–7.
- 154.
Graves, The White Goddess, 220.
- 155.
See Bromwich, Triads, 398.
- 156.
Reproduced in Jacobs, “Lloyd Alexander: A Critical Biography,” 547–9.
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Fimi, D. (2017). Lloyd Alexander’s The Chronicles of Prydain: Building Fantasy upon Forgery. In: Celtic Myth in Contemporary Children’s Fantasy. Critical Approaches to Children's Literature. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-55282-2_4
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