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Case Study Part Four: Different Perspectives on Sexual and Gender-Based Violence

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Collective Consciousness and Gender

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Abstract

The chapter is divided into two sections. It first shows that despite the growing collective consciousness of shadow material (outlined in the previous chapter), sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) persists as a central aspect of armed conflicts. As such, it is necessary for the unconscious shadow to be consciously integrated in the global collective self.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See, for example, article 27 of Geneva Convention IV (1949): Women shall be especially protected against any attack on their honour, in particular against rape, enforced prostitution, or any form of indecent assault and article 4(2)(e) of Additional Protocol II (1977): Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing, the following acts…are and shall remain prohibited at any time and in any place whatsoever: outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment, rape, enforced prostitution and any form or indecent assault.

  2. 2.

    For example, the Rwandan Gacaca courts, the Regulation 64 Panels in the courts of Kosovo, and the Special Court for Sierra Leone.

  3. 3.

    The following articles show that although the majority of victims of sexual violence are women, and the majority of perpetrators are male, men can also be victims and women can be perpetrators: Sandesh Sivakurmaran, (2010) ‘Lost in Translation: UN Responses to Sexual Violence Against Men and Boys in Situations of Armed Conflict,’ International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 92 (877), pp. 259–277; Sandesh Sivakurmaran, (2007) ‘Sexual Violence Against Men in Armed Conflict,’ The European Journal of International Law, vol. 18(2), pp. 253–276; Lara Stemple, (2009) ‘Male Rape and Human Rights,’ Hastings Law Journal, vol. 60, pp. 605–647; Dustin A. Lewis, (2009) ‘Unrecognized Victims: Sexual Violence Against Men in Conflict Settings Under International Law,’ Wisconsin International Law Journal, vol. 27(1), pp. 1–49; R. Charli Carpenter, (2006) ‘Recognising Gender-Based Violence Against Civilian Men and Boys in Conflict Situations,’ Security Dialogue, vol. 37(83), pp. 83–103; Kirsten Johnson et al., (2010) ‘Association of Sexual Violence and Human Rights Violations With Physical and Mental Health in Territories of the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo,’ Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 304(5), pp. 553–562; Jill Keesbury and Ian Askew, Comprehensive responses to gender based violence in low-resource settings: Lessons learned from implementation (Lusaka, Zambia: Population Council, 2010).

  4. 4.

    The Prosecutor v Cesic, Case No. IT-95-10/1, Sentencing Judgment, 11 March 2004.

  5. 5.

    The concept of command or superior responsibility is acknowledged in Article 33 of the Rome Statute, which states:

    1. 1.

      The fact that a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court has been committed by a person pursuant to an order of a Government or of a superior, whether military or civilian, shall not relieve that person of criminal responsibility unless:

      1.  (a)

         The person was under a legal obligation to obey orders of the Government or the superior in question;

      2.  (b)

         The person did not know that the order was unlawful; and

      3.  (c)

         The order was not manifestly unlawful.

    2. 2.

      For the purposes of this article, orders to commit genocide or crimes against humanity are manifestly unlawful.

    Clearly superior responsibility cannot be used as a defence to the crime of rape or SGBV where it forms part of a genocide or crimes against humanity, but it is questionable as to whether this defence could be used in relation to a single act of rape in the course of an armed conflict (which would be classified as a war crime or a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions).

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  1. Centre for Social Impact, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia

    Alexandra Walker

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  1. Alexandra Walker
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Walker, A. (2018). Case Study Part Four: Different Perspectives on Sexual and Gender-Based Violence. In: Collective Consciousness and Gender. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-54414-8_12

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