Abstract
Before the Axial Age (800–200 BCE), Zarathustra was the first to present a conception of justice (Gathas) anchored on a just social system with just governance as its axis. Importantly, his is also a conception within the framework of the first explicitly stated radical monotheism, emphasizing good rule with a good ruler as a man of truth. In the Gathas, truth is the first virtue. Ancient Egyptians considered that the source of justice was the divine, the creator god (Maat), who designated justice as the governing concept in the cosmos as well as among humans. While Pharaohs had absolute power, maat (truth, balance, order, harmony, law, morality and justice) played a restraining influence on their authority, they were expected to guarantee justice by being benevolent to their subjects and pious toward the gods.
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- 1.
In this book a clear distinction is made between the thoughts of Zarathustra, discernible from his original thoughts expressed in his Gathas, and what has become known as Zoroastrianism which developed roughly in the middle of the millennium BCE and practiced today in Iran and in India. See Vilho Harle. Idea of Social Order in the Ancient World. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998; also John Zerzan, John. The Iron Grip of Civilization: The Axial Age, 2008. http://theanarchistlibrary.org. Zerzan suggests that Zoroastrianism became state religion during the time of Achaemenids (558–350 BCE), while, according to some of the most careful and conservative historians, Prophet Zarathustra lived at least a millennium earlier. Some have argued that what distorted the religion of Zarathustra was the passage of such a long time between Zarathustra and the discovery of it by Darius (550–486).
- 2.
In Chap. 9 of this book and in another book, which is a companion to this book, we attempt to provide an answer to the perennial question posed by many that if Islam indeed envisions a just social system as explained in this book, then why Muslim societies of today are among the most unjust in the world. Our answer in short and unsurprisingly is that, much like all other systems, Islam’s message was distorted by those who stood to gain. While acknowledging this plight that has befallen all systems, whether divine or secular (such as happened to the Constitution and the Bill of Rights in the USA), it is imperative to understand the original vision. Without it, there would be no benchmark to measure the shortcomings of the present system and to take measures to restore the original vision.
- 3.
Much has been written on the concept of Axial Age beginning with Karl Jasper. The Origin and Goal of History. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1953 (original in German in 1949). See also other works dealing with this topic, for example, E. Voegelin, E. Order and History (in 5 volumes). Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University, 1956–1987. Voegelin refers to the Axial Age by saying that the age was one of the Great Leap of Being representing spiritual awakening and a shift in perception from collectivity (tribal) to individuality and values surrounding it. On the concept of the Axial Age, see also Schwartz, B.I. 1975. “The age of transcendence.” Daedalus, vol. 104, no. 2 (1956–1987): 1–7; Eisenstadt, Shmuel. “The axial age: the emergence of transcendental visions and the rise of clerics” European Journal of Sociology, vol. 23, no. 2 (1982): 294–314; Bellah, Robert. 2005. “What is Axial about the Axial Age?” European Journal of Sociology, vol. 46, (2005): 69–89; Armstrong, Karen. The Great Transformation. New York: Knopf Publishers, 2006; Eisenstadt, Shmuel. “The Axial conundrum” Analise Social, vol. 199 (2011): 201–217; Eisenstadt, Shmuel (ed.), 2012. The Origin and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies: State University of New York Press, 2012.
- 4.
It is believed by some Old Testament scholars that Chapters 40–55 of the Book of Isaiah was written by another person, a Hebrew prophet who lived with the Hebrew exiles during the period in which these people were held captive in Babylonia.
- 5.
See, for example, Black, Antony. “The ‘Axial Period’: What was It and What Does It Signify?” The Review of Politics, vol. 70, no. 1 (2008): 23–39; MacCulloch, Diarmaid. “The axis of goodness,” The Guardian, March 17, 2006; Provan, Iain. Convenient Myths: The Axial Age, Dark Green Religion, and the World that Never Was. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2013.
- 6.
Excavations that began in the 1920s at two archaeological sites of Mohenjodaro and Harappa in today’s Pakistan. The evidence uncovered at these sites has led archaeologists to estimate the time of these cities as 3000 BC. While the work still continues, there is evidence that the river Sarasvati dried up in 1900 BCE. Evidence of what happened to the inhabitants of these cities is not at hand. They may have migrated further north in India. Rig Vedas mention this river. For a somewhat different reading of events, see Naegele, Charles J. “History and Influence of Law Code of Manu.” Theses and Dissertations. Paper 1. Student Scholarship at Golden Gate University School of Law. GGU Law Digital Common, 2008 http://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edutheses, pp. 13–37.
- 7.
Use of iron is an important factor in dating. Copper and bronze were in use in the time and the place when and where Zoroaster lived. It is clear that Gathas do not mention iron. However, the word “Ayas” in Rig Veda is translated from Sanskrit as “iron.” If the translation is correct, then it would appear that there is validity to the claim of some scholars who date Gathas as being much earlier. Recently, however, there are some views that the word does not mean “iron,” but “metal,” or hardened “bronze” even. See Charles J. Naegele, op. cit. pp. 42–47.
- 8.
See Kingsley, Peter. “Meetings with Magi: Iranian Themes among the Greeks, from Xanthus of Lydia to Plato’s Academy,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 5, no. 2 (1995): 173–209; See also Albert Pike’s lecture, op. cit.
- 9.
Magi were priests of Zoroastrianism among the Medes and the Persians around 800 BCE to the time of the Arab invasion of Iran. So, Aristotle’s reference to Magi means Zoroastrians of his time.
- 10.
See Diogenes Laertius “The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers,” translated by C. D. Yonge. https://archive.org/details/livesandopinions00dioguoft/page/n15.
- 11.
See Settegast, Mary. When Zarathushtra Spoke: The Reformation of Neolithic Culture and Religion. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publications, 2005.
- 12.
The Gathas refer to Ahura Mazda, inter alia, as “the Supreme Benevolent Providence,”“the Wise and Powerful Lord,” “the All Knowing,” “the Greatest of All,” “the Most High,” “the Creator Supreme,” “the world Creator” and the “All Seeing Lord.” Here, we rely on the translation of the Gathas by D. J. Irani, The Gathas: The Hymns of Zarathushtra.
- 13.
For clear expression of the Prophet’s radical monotheism, see Yasna 44 in the Gathas (J. D. Irani’s translation).
- 14.
Apparently, Zarathushtra refers to excess drinking of Haoma, a sacred, ritual “golden drink” made from a plant (said to be genus Ephedra) that now grows in the Hari River Valley in Afghanistan. Haoma (in Avesta) or Soma (in Sanskrit) is a psychotropic substance. See Harry Falk, Harry. “Soma I and II.” Bulletin of School of Oriental and African Studies, vol. 52, no. 1 (1989) 77–90.
- 15.
Zarathustra was against ritual sacrifice of animals, especially cows.
- 16.
While the Gathas do make clear reference to the spirit of falsehood, evil and untruth, the words “Angra Mainyu” are not in the Gathas and come from Zoroastrian literature. See D. J. Irani’s translation of the Gathas, p. 6.
- 17.
Ibid, p. 6.
- 18.
The Gathas are only 17 hymns and are now part of the sacred book of Zoroastrians, Avesta (or Zend-Avesta; the “word “Zend” means interpretation). The original words of Zarathustra, the Gathas, are now part of Avesta, called Yasna (itself a part the liturgical elements of Avesta).
- 19.
See D. J. Irani, p. 7.
- 20.
Manning 2012, p. 112.
- 21.
- 22.
The idea of Maat (also spelled as Ma’at and ma’at) dates at least to the Old Kingdom, 3100–2181 BCE (for history of the Old Kingdom, see Malek 2000). See Box 2.1. Van Blerk 2012, p. 10, suggests that “Ma’at appears almost in every text that Egyptologists have translated, such as texts of wisdom, funerary papyri or hieroglyphic inscriptions carved on temple walls. The main references from which Egyptologists and religious historians have derived their understanding of the Egyptian concept of Ma’at are writings found mostly in tombs and temples….”
- 23.
Frankfort et al. 1977.
- 24.
See Shirun-Grumach 1985.
- 25.
See El-Gamal 2016, p. 1 of “Conclusion.”
- 26.
Ferguson 2016, p. 16.
- 27.
See Assmann 2003, pp. 127–128; Assmann 1992, p. 170.
- 28.
- 29.
See Shupak 1992, p. 15. See also Karanga 2004.
- 30.
- 31.
El-Gamal 2016, p. 1 of “Conclusion.”
- 32.
- 33.
Ibid, p. 80.
- 34.
See Garrend 1993, pp. 7–16.
- 35.
Shupak 1992, p. 15. The enemy of the sun-god Re was the darkness which Isfet could bring about through injustice, disorder and chaos.
- 36.
See Lichtheim 1973, p. 49.
- 37.
Shupak 1992, p. 15.
- 38.
Iverson 1961, p. 11.
- 39.
Mancini 2002, p. 69.
- 40.
Ibid, p. 62. She notes that: An Egyptian text advises “don’t lie, you must be in balance” pp. 76–83. See also the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant below.
- 41.
Mancini 2002, pp. 87–94.
- 42.
- 43.
See Assmann 1992, p. 150.
- 44.
The scene of the “weighing of the heart” is depicted in a tomb painting from the Third Dynasty, 2686–2613 BCE. See Chapter 125 “The Judgement of the Dead” from the Book of the Dead translated by Lichtheim 1976, pp. 124–132 in Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings II. See also Mancini 2002, pp. 78–79; Shorter 1978, p. 54; Allen 1974; Roberts 2000.
- 45.
See Ruiz 2001.
- 46.
- 47.
Ferguson 2016, p. 76; Ashby 2002.
- 48.
See O’Connor and Silverman 1995; Romer 1995.
- 49.
Van Blerk 2006, p. 25.
- 50.
Fairman 1958, p. 75.
- 51.
Teeter 1997.
- 52.
Ferguson, p. 80; Simpson 1989.
- 53.
Hornung 1982. pp. 91–93.
- 54.
- 55.
Breated 1934, p. 144.
- 56.
- 57.
Shupak 1992, p. 16.
- 58.
See Grimal 1992, Vol. 5, pp. 7–58. See also Ver Steeg 2002, pp. 17–26; Bedell 1985.
- 59.
- 60.
El-Gamal 2016, p. 6 of “Conclusion”.
- 61.
Ferguson 2016, p. 74.
- 62.
Ibid, p. 75; and Shafer 1991.
- 63.
Shupak 1992, p. 7, suggests that to the ancient Egyptians shawl had magical significance and the spreading of the shawl over anything symbolized ownership, and when spread over humans (especially women), it meant protection.
- 64.
See Lichtheim 1973, p. 172.
- 65.
Iskandar 1975.
- 66.
See http://cornerofknowledge.com/the-42-laws-of-maat-the-original-commandments/. See also Karenga 2006; Budge 2005.
- 67.
Source: From the Egyptian Book of the Dead (or the Book of the Coming Forth by Day). See E. A. Wallis Budge’s translation, 1913, Chapter 125. See also http://maatlaws.blogspot.my/.
- 68.
Selected and adapted from Budge’s translation (1913) of the Tale in Lichtheim 1973, and Gardiner 1923. See also translation by Henry Frankfort et al. 1977, pp. 307–311. For interpretations of the Tale and its relationship to justice (maat), see Jeffers 2013; Parkinson 1991, 1992, 2012; Perry 1986; Shafer 1991; van Blerk 2006; Shupak 1992.
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Mirakhor, A., Askari, H. (2019). Conception of Justice: Pre-Axial Age. In: Conceptions of Justice from Earliest History to Islam. Political Economy of Islam. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-54303-5_2
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