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Minorities and the First World War pp 143–173Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

“The Enemy Within”?: Armenians, Jews, the Military Crises of 1915 and the Genocidal Origins of the “Minorities Question”

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Abstract

This chapter identifies two simultaneous First World War military crises, the one Ottoman, the other Russian, with major consequences in the way post-war nation-states began “seeing” minorities and resorting to genocidal action against them. Russian Jews and Ottoman Armenians were largely held responsible for the near-military disasters of 1915 in each case leading to mass communal deportations. While genocide was avoided in the former case, realised in the latter, both sequences acted as “military” models for how “new” states might eliminate unwanted groups through ethnic cleansing. While an alarmed international community responded with a 1919 commitment to minorities’ protection this same community’s imprimatur to mass compulsory population exchange at the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne rather suggests a post-war acceptance of programmes of violent state homogenisation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Mark Levene, War, Jews and the New Europe: The Diplomacy of Lucien Wolf, 1914–1919 (Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilisation, 1992), 312–315 for the complete text.

  2. 2.

    Richard G. Hovannisian, “Historical Dimensions of the Armenian Question, 1878–1923,” in The Armenian Genocide in Perspective, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1986), 37.

  3. 3.

    For notable studies of this ilk, see Bernd Hüppauf ed., War, Violence and the Modern Condition (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1997); Alan Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 2; Bernd Weisbrod, “Military Violence and Male Fundamentalism: Ernst Jünger’s Contribution to the Conservative Revolution,” History Workshop Journal 49 (2000).

  4. 4.

    Raphael Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1944), 77–87.

  5. 5.

    For the background, see Matthew Frank, Expelling the Germans: British Opinion and Post-1945 Population Transfer in Context (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).

  6. 6.

    Vahakn N. Dadrian, “The Convergent Aspects of the Armenian and Jewish Cases of Genocide: a Reinterpretation of the Concept of Holocaust,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 3:2 (1988); Helen Fein, “A Formula for Genocide: Comparisons of the Turkish Genocide (1915), and the German Holocaust (1939–45),” Comparative Studies in Sociology 1 (1978); Robert F. Melson, Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1992), for notable examples. For another variation on the theme see Mark Levene, “The Experience of Genocide: Armenia 1915–16, Romania, 1941–42,” in Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah, eds. Hans-Lukas Kieser and Dominik J. Schaller (Zurich: Chronos, 2002), 423–462.

  7. 7.

    For key studies, see Norman Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914–1917 (London: Macmillan, 1975); W.E.D. Allen and Paul Muratoff, Caucasian Battlefields (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953).

  8. 8.

    Peter Gatrell, A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War 1 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), Appendix 1, 211–216.

  9. 9.

    See Eric Lohr, Nationalising the Russian Empire: The Campaign against Enemy Aliens during World War One (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 2003), chapter 2.

  10. 10.

    Lohr, Nationalising the Russian Empire, 155.

  11. 11.

    Ibid., chapters 3 and 4.

  12. 12.

    Eric Lohr, “The Russian Army and Jews: Mass Deportation, Hostages, and Violence during World War 1,” Russian Review 60:3 (2001).

  13. 13.

    See Conjoint Foreign Committee report: “The Eastern War Zone: Ill-treatment of the Jews” encl. in. Lucien Wolf to Lancelot Oliphant, September 1, 1915, The National Archives Kew (TNA), FO 371/2455/155; Joshua A. Sanborn, Imperial Apocalypse: The Great War and the Destruction of the Russian Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 82.

  14. 14.

    Eric Lohr, “1915 and the War Pogrom Paradigm in the Russian Empire,” in Anti-Jewish Violence: Rethinking the Pogrom in Eastern European History, eds. Jonathan Dekel-Chen et al. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), 48.

  15. 15.

    Conjoint Report, “The Eastern War Zone.”

  16. 16.

    For analysis, see Mark Levene, The Crisis of Genocide, vol. 2, Annihilation: The European Rimlands, 1939–1953 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 107–111.

  17. 17.

    Michael Cherniavsky ed., Prologue to Revolution: Notes of I.A. Iakhantov on Secret Meetings of Council of Ministers, 1915 (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall 1967), 60–72.

  18. 18.

    Sir George Buchanan to Sir Edward Grey, March 10, 1915, TNA, FO 800/74.

  19. 19.

    Lord Robert Cecil minute, January 6, 1916, TNA, FO 371/2744/4039.

  20. 20.

    For a succinct synopsis of events, see Donald Bloxham, The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), chapter 2.

  21. 21.

    Bloxham, Great Game, 136–137.

  22. 22.

    David Gaunt, Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War 1 (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006).

  23. 23.

    For contemporary soundings from the American ambassador at the Porte, see Henry Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau’s Story (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page, 1918), chapter 23.

  24. 24.

    Taner Akçam “The Young Turks and the Plans for the Ethnic Homogenisation of Anatolia,” in Shatterzone of Empires: Coexistence and Violence in the German, Habsburg, Russian and Ottoman Borderlands, eds. Omer Bartov and Eric D.Weitz (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013), 258–279.

  25. 25.

    For province by province examination, see Raymond Kévorkian, The Armenian Genocide: A Complete History (London: I.B. Tauris, 2011).

  26. 26.

    Raymond Kévorkian, “Ahmed Djemal pacha et le sort des deportés arméniens de Syrie-Palestine,” in Völkermord ed. Kieser and Schaller, 206–207. Kévorkian however proposes a total of 630,000 Armenian fatalities, including those massacred, from this second phase.

  27. 27.

    See Erik Jan Zürcher, “Ottoman Labour Battalions in World War 1,” in Völkermord, eds. Kieser and Schaller, 187–196.

  28. 28.

    See Wolfgang Gust ed., The Armenian Genocide: Evidence from the German Foreign Office Archives, 1915–1916 (Oxford: Berghahn, 2014).

  29. 29.

    For careful consideration of the fatality numbers, see Hilmar Kaiser, “Genocide at the Twilight of the Ottoman Empire,” in The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies, eds. Donald Bloxham and A. Dirk Moses (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 382–383.

  30. 30.

    See Walter P. Zenner, “Middleman Minorities and Genocide,” in Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death, eds. Isidor Walliman and Michael N. Dokbowski (Westport, CT: Syracuse University Press, 2000), 253–281; Peter Balakian, Black Dog of Fate, A Memoir (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 39–49.

  31. 31.

    For notable analyses, see Erich Haberer, Jews and Revolution in Nineteenth-Century Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Louise Nalbandian, The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: The Development of Armenian Political Parties through the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963).

  32. 32.

    Léon Poliakov, History of Anti-Semitism, vol. iv, Suicidal Europe 1870–1933, trans. George Klin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 101–102.

  33. 33.

    See Gerard J. Libaridian, “What was Revolutionary about Armenian Revolutionary Parties in the Ottoman Empire?” in A Question of Genocide: Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire, eds. Ronald Grigor Suny, Fatma Müge Goçek and Norman N. Naimark (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 82–112.

  34. 34.

    Roderic H. Davison, “The Armenian Crisis, 1912–1914,” American Historical Review 53 (1948): 484. See also Dikran M. Kaligian¸ Armenian Organisation and Ideology Under Ottoman Rule 1908–1914 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2009).

  35. 35.

    For parallels and contrasts, see Dominic Lieven, Empire: The Russian Empire and its Rivals (London: John Murray, 2000).

  36. 36.

    Salahi Sonyel, The Great War and the Tragedy of Anatolia (Ankara: Turkish Historical Printing House, 2000), 82.

  37. 37.

    Egmont Zechlin, Die deutsche Politik und die Juden im Ersten Weltkrieg (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1969), 116–125.

  38. 38.

    For sober assessment, see Aviel Roshwald, Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, Russia and the Middle East, 1914–1923 (New York: Routledge, 2001).

  39. 39.

    Joshua A. Sanborn, “Unsettling the Empire: Violent Migrations and Social Disaster in Russia during World War I,” Journal of Modern History 77:2 (2005): 310.

  40. 40.

    For close analysis see Bloxham, Great Game, 72, 79–83.

  41. 41.

    Leon Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution, Vol. 1. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1937), 252.

  42. 42.

    Quoted in George Katkov, “German Political Intervention in Russia during World War 1,” in Revolutionary Russia, ed. Richard Pipes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard and Oxford University Presses, 1968), 65.

  43. 43.

    For CUP background and profiles see Feroz Ahmad, The Young Turks: The CUP in Turkish Politics. 1908–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 166–181.

  44. 44.

    James J. Reid, “Total War: The Annihilation Ethic and the Armenian Genocide, 1870–1918,” in The Armenian Genocide, History, Politics, Ethics, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St Martins Press, 1992), 21–52; George W. Gawrych, “The Culture and Politics of Violence in Turkish Society 1903–13,” Middle Eastern Studies 22 (1985).

  45. 45.

    Vahakn N. Dadrian, Warrant for Genocide: Key Elements of the Turko-Armenian Conflict (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1999), chapter 9.

  46. 46.

    Ahmed, Young Turks, 21.

  47. 47.

    Matthias Bjornlund, “The 1914 Cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a Case of Violent Turkification,” Journal of Genocide Research 10:1 (2008).

  48. 48.

    Vakahn N. Dadrian, “The Role of the Turkish Military in the Destruction of Ottoman Armenians: A Study in Historical Continuities,” Journal of Political and Military Sociology 20:2 (1992): 276–277.

  49. 49.

    Edward J. Erickson, Ottomans and Armenians: A Study in Counter-Insurgency (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 163. Erickson’s key failing, however, is his willingness to accept army reports at face value.

  50. 50.

    Kamal Madhar Ahmad, Kurdistan during the First World War (London: Saqi, 1994); Michael A. Reynolds, Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires, 1908–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

  51. 51.

    For the “permanent security” argument, see A. Dirk Moses, “Genocide vs. Security: A False Opposition,” Journal of Genocide Research 15 (2013): 493.

  52. 52.

    Christian Gerlach, Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010) chapter 3.

  53. 53.

    Alexander Victor Prusin, Nationalising a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914–1920 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005), 19.

  54. 54.

    Yohanan Petrovsky-Stern, “The ‘Jewish Policy’ of the Late Imperial War Ministry: The Impact of the Russian Right,” Kritika 3 (2002).

  55. 55.

    For the full story, see W. C. Fuller Jr., The Foe Within: Fantasies of Treason and the End of Imperial Russia (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2006).

  56. 56.

    Prusin, Nationalising a Borderland, 30–32.

  57. 57.

    Peter Holquist, “The Role of Personality in the First (1914–1915) Russian Occupation of Galicia and Bukovina,” in Dekel-Chen, Anti-Jewish Violence, 61.

  58. 58.

    Prusin, Nationalising a Borderland, 52.

  59. 59.

    Sanborn, Imperial Apocalypse, 254–255.

  60. 60.

    Ibid., 59.

  61. 61.

    Holquist, “Personality,” 59.

  62. 62.

    William Rosenberg, “Revolution and Counter-Revolution: The Syndrome of Violence in Russia’s Civil Wars, 1918–1920,” in War in Peace: Paramilitary Violence in Europe after the Great War, eds. Robert Gerwarth and John Horne (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 34.

  63. 63.

    Fatma Ulgen, “Reading Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on the Armenian Genocide of 1915,” Patterns of Prejudice 44 (2010).

  64. 64.

    Martin van Bruinessen, “Genocide in Kurdistan? The Suppression of the Dersim Rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) and the Chemical War Against the Iraqi Kurds (1988),” in Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions, ed. George, D Andreopoulos (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994), 144–154.

  65. 65.

    Mark Levene, “A Moving Target, The Usual Suspects and (Maybe) a Smoking Gun: the Problem of Pinning Blame in Modern Genocide,” Patterns of Prejudice 33 (1999).

  66. 66.

    James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998).

  67. 67.

    Zygmunt Bauman, Postmodernity and its Discontents (Cambridge: Polity, 1997), 18.

  68. 68.

    Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Meridian, 1958), 290–304.

  69. 69.

    Carole Fink, Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), chapter 6.

  70. 70.

    For the early groundwork, see Amos Perlmutter, The Military and Politics in Modern Times (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977).

  71. 71.

    For one such Polish variation on a theme, see Laurence Weinbaum, A Marriage of Convenience: The New Zionist Organisation and the Polish Government, 1936–1939 (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1993).

  72. 72.

    Michael Mann, The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 67.

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    Mark Levene

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Levene, M. (2017). “The Enemy Within”?: Armenians, Jews, the Military Crises of 1915 and the Genocidal Origins of the “Minorities Question”. In: Ewence, H., Grady, T. (eds) Minorities and the First World War. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53975-5_6

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53975-5_6

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  • Online ISBN: 978-1-137-53975-5

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