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Introduction. Minority History: From War to Peace

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Abstract

Against the backdrop of the First World War centenary, the introduction considers the place of minority groups in Europe’s commemorative plans. It argues that the governments of Britain, France and Germany have largely stuck to conventional narratives of the conflict, which have for the most part ignored diversity. Within local communities, however, far more innovative work has taken place, some of which has uncovered the variety of spaces that minority soldiers and civilians occupied during the First World War. The introduction concludes by considering historical writing on minorities in conflict and by outlining the agenda for this current volume.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    David Cameron, speech at the Imperial War Museum, October 11, 2012, Prime Minister’s Office, accessed September 19, 2016, https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/speech-at-imperial-war-museum-on-first-world-war-centenary-plans.

  2. 2.

    For reflections on the dominance of these narratives, see Dan Todman, The Great War: Myth and Memory (London: Continuum, 2005).

  3. 3.

    For the war’s global dimensions, see Hew Strachan, The First World War. Volume 1: To Arms (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); Michael Neiberg, Fighting the Great War: A Global History (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006); Jörn Leonhard, Die Büchse der Pandora: Geschichte des Ersten Weltkriegs (Munich: Beck, 2014).

  4. 4.

    Celia Applegate, A Nation of Provincials: The German Idea of Heimat (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 108–119; Abigail Green, Fatherlands: State-Building and Nationhood in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 291–300.

  5. 5.

    In Britain, see for example, Jeremy Paxman’s BBC Series: “Britain’s Great War” (2014) or the debate that erupted in 2014 over the causes of the conflict: Richard J. Evans, “Michael Gove shows his Ignorance of History–Again,” The Guardian, January 6, 2014, accessed September 19, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/jan/06/richard-evans-michael-gove-history-education. In Germany, the Deutsches Historisches Museum offered its own fairly conventional take on the conflict: “Der Erste Weltkrieg, 1914–1918,” (2014), accessed September 19, 2016, https://www.dhm.de/ausstellungen/archiv/2014/der-erste-weltkrieg.html.

  6. 6.

    On the so-called, Judenzählung or Jewish census, see Jacob Rosenthal, “Die Ehre des jüdischen Soldaten”: Die Judenzählung im Ersten Weltkrieg und ihre Folgen (Frankfurt: Campus, 2007).

  7. 7.

    Terrence Denman, “The Catholic Irish Soldier in the First World War: The ‘Racial Environment’,” Irish Historical Studies 108:27 (1991): 365.

  8. 8.

    Panikos Panayi, Prisoners of Britain: German Civilian and Combatant Internees during the First World War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2012).

  9. 9.

    See for example, Roger Chickering’s magnificent “total history” of one city at war: Roger Chickering, The Great War and Urban Life in Germany: Freiburg, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

  10. 10.

    Jeffrey Verhey, The Spirit of 1914: Militarism, Myth and Mobilization in Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Catriona Pennell, A Kingdom United: Popular Responses to the Outbreak of the First World War in Britain and Ireland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); Jean-Jacques Becker, La France en guerre (1914–1918): la grande mutation (Brussels: Ed. Complex, 1996), 22–43.

  11. 11.

    Terri Blom Crocker, The Christmas Truce: Myth, Memory, and the First World War (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2015).

  12. 12.

    Peter Gatrell and Philippe Nivet, “Refugees and Exiles,” in The Cambridge History of the First World War. Vol. III Civil Society, ed. Jay Winter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 186–215.

  13. 13.

    See for example, Jörg Nagler, Nationale Minoritäten im Krieg: “Feindliche Ausländer” und die amerikanische Heimatfront während des Ersten Weltkriegs (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2000).

  14. 14.

    Belinda Davies, Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics, and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 117–118; Avner Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989); Maureen Healy, Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War and Everyday Life in World War I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 31–86.

  15. 15.

    Howard Phillips and David Killingray, “Introduction”, in The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918–1919: New Perspectives, eds. Howard Phillips and David Killingray (New York: Routledge, 2003), 4.

  16. 16.

    The most complete overview of the sinking is still to be found in Norman Clothier, Black Valour: The South African Native Labour Contingent, 1916–1918 and the Sinking of the ‘Mendi’ (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1987).

  17. 17.

    “Queen Honours Black War Dead,” The Times, March 24, 1995, 12.

  18. 18.

    Tony Kushner, “‘Without Intending and of the Most Undesirable Features of a Colour Bar’: Race Science, Europeanness and the British Armed Forces during the Twentieth Century,” Patterns of Prejudice 46:3–4 (2012): 342–344.

  19. 19.

    Angela Merkel speech in the Deutsches Historisches Museum, May 28, 2014, accessed September 19, 2016, https://www.bundesregierung.de/Content/DE/Rede/2014/05/2014-05-28-merkel-ausstellung-1914-bis-1918.html;jsessionid=163A0592D5D42DC0DAC2DB48CEA5F213.s7t1.

  20. 20.

    In general see Richard Fogarty, Race and War in France: Colonial Subjects in the French Army, 1914–1918 (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2008); Joe Lunn, Memoirs of the Maelstrom: A Sengalese Oral History of the First World War (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1999).

  21. 21.

    Ulrike Heikaus and Julia Köhne, eds., Krieg! Juden zwischen den Fronten, 1914–1918 (Berlin: Hentrich & Hentrich, 2014).

  22. 22.

    Jewish Museum Berlin, “Der Erste Weltkrieg in der jüdischen Erinnerung”, accessed September 19, 2016, https://www.jmberlin.de/1914-1918.

  23. 23.

    Otto von Guericke Universität Magdeburg, “Projekt jüdische Soldaten”, accessed September 19, 2016, www.projekt-juedische-soldaten.ovgu.de; Hatikva, “Datenbank zu den Denkmalen der Jüdischen Gefallenen des I. Weltkrieges”, accessed September 19, 2016, http://hatikva.de/datenbank%20erster%20weltkrieg.htm. See also the work on the First World War that has emerged under the umbrella of the annual Laupenheimer Gespräche: Haus der Geschichte Baden-Württemberg, ed., “Hoffet mit daheim auf fröhlichere Zeit”: Juden und Christen im Ersten Weltkrieg (Heidelberg: Winter, 2014).

  24. 24.

    “La Charente et la Grande Guerre”: http://www.charente.gouv.fr/Politiques-publiques/Citoyennete-Election/Centenaire-de-la-Premiere-Guerre-mondiale/Exposition-La-Charente-et-la-Grande-Guerre-dans-les-salons-de-la-prefecture/Le-depliant-de-l-exposition-La-Charente-et-la-Grande-Guerre. “Les Juifs de France et la Grande Guerre”: http://musees.regioncentre.fr/expositions/les-juifs-de-france-et-la-grande-guerre.

  25. 25.

    For a more conventional narrative of the war, see Susan Chambers, Chester in the Great War (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2015).

  26. 26.

    Stockport Museum, “Keep the Home Fires Burning – Stories from World War I”, accessed September 19, 2016, https://www.stockport.gov.uk/keep-the-home-fires-burning-stories-from-world-war-i.

  27. 27.

    Susie Stubbs, Sanctuary from the Trenches: The Stamford Hospital at Dunham Massey (Swindon: National Trust, 2014).

  28. 28.

    University of Chester, “Diverse Narratives of WWI: Minority Experiences in Cheshire, 1914–1918”, accessed September 19, 2016, www.diversenarratives.com.

  29. 29.

    Jeremy Black, Rethinking Military History (New York: Routledge, 2004), 152.

  30. 30.

    Jay Winter and Antoine Prost, The Great War in History: Debates and Controversies, 1914 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 8–12.

  31. 31.

    Peter Paret, “The New Military History”, Parameters 31 (1991), 10–18.

  32. 32.

    John Keegan, The Face of Battle (London: Cape, 1976), 78.

  33. 33.

    Keegan, Face of Battle, 247–248.

  34. 34.

    Richard Holmes, Firing Line Battle (London: Jonathan Cape, 1986), 116.

  35. 35.

    See for example Trevor Wilson, The Myriad Faces of War: Britain and the Great War, 1914–1918 (London: Polity, 1988); Wolfram Wette, ed., Der Krieg des kleinen Mannes: Eine Militärgeschichte von unten (Munich: Piper, 1992).

  36. 36.

    Panikos Panayi, ed., Minorities in Wartime: National and Racial Groupings in Europe, North America and Australia during the Two World Wars (Oxford: Berg, 1993).

  37. 37.

    Panikos Panayi, “Dominant Societies and Minorities in the Two World Wars,” Minorities in Wartime: National and Racial Groupings in Europe, North America and Australia during the Two World Wars, ed. Panikos Panayi (Oxford: Berg, 1993), 3–23.

  38. 38.

    Timothy Winegard, Indigenous Peoples of the British Dominions and the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011). On Indian soldiers, see amongst others Heike Liebau, Katrin Bromber, Katharina Lange, Dyala Hamzah and Ravi Ahuja, eds., The World in Wars: Experiences, Perceptions and Perspectives from Africa and Asia (Leiden: Brill, 2010); David Omissi, Indian Voices of the Great War: Soldiers’ Letters, 1914–18 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999). For West Indian Soldiers, see Richard Smith, Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War: Race, Masculinity and the Development of a National Consciousness (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004).

  39. 39.

    Myron Echenberg, Colonial Conscripts: The Tirailleurs Sénégalais in French West Africa, 1857–1960 (London: Heinemann, 1991).

  40. 40.

    On Chinese labour, see Xu Guoqi, Strangers on the Western Front: Chinese Workers in the Great War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2011); Paul Bailey, “‘Coolies’ or Huagong? Conflicting British and Chinese Attitudes towards Contract Workers in World War One France,” in Britain and China, 1840–1970: Empire, Finance and War, eds. Robert Bickers and Jonathan Howlett (New York: Routledge, 2016), 58–83. For recent studies of Jews in the war, see Derek Penslar, Jews and the Military: A History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 152–194; Tim Grady, A Deadly Legacy: German Jews and the Great War (London: Yale University Press, 2017); Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, Jews in the Russian Army, 1827–1917: Drafted into Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). Studies of black African soldiers include Christian Koller, “Von wilden aller Rassen niedergemetzelt.” Die Diskussion um die Verwendung von Kolonialtruppen in Europa zwischen Rassismus, Kolonial- und Militärpolitik (1914–1930) (Stuttgart: Steiner, 2001); Dick van Galen Last with Ralf Futselaar, Black Shame: African Soldiers in Europe, 1914–1922, trans. Marjolijn de Jager (London: Bloomsbury, 2015).

  41. 41.

    See for example Stephen Bourne, Black Poppies: Britain’s Black Community and the Great War (Stroud: The History Press, 2014); Ray Costello, Black Tommies: British Soldiers of African Descent in the First World War (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2015).

  42. 42.

    Richard Grayson, Belfast Boys: How Unionists and Nationalists Fought and Died Together in the First World War (London: Bloomsbury, 2009); Keith Jeffery, Ireland and the Great War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Julia Eichenberg, Kämpfen für Frieden und Fürsorge: Polnische Veteranen des Ersten Weltkriegs und ihre international Kontakte, 1918–1939 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2011); Claus Bundgård Christensen, “Fighting for the Kaiser: The Danish Minority in the German Army, 1914–18,” in Scandinavia in the First World War: Studies in the War Experience of Northern Neutrals, ed. Claes Ahlund (Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 2012); Christopher Fischer, Alsace to the Alsatians? Visions and Divisions of Alsatian Regionalism (Oxford: Berghahn, 2014), 100–127.

  43. 43.

    Tony Kushner and David Cesarani, eds., The Internment of Aliens in Twentieth Century Britain (London: Frank Cass, 1993); Matthew Stibbe, British Civilian Internees in Germany: The Ruhleben Camp, 1914–1918 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2008).

  44. 44.

    See though James Kitchen, Alisa Miller and Laura Rowe, eds., Other Combatants, Other Fronts: Competing Histories of the First World War (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press, 2011).

  45. 45.

    Santanu Das, ed., Race, Empire and First World War Writing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011). See also Eric Strom and Ali Al Tuma, eds., Colonial Soldiers in Europe, 1914–1945: “Aliens in Uniform” in Wartime (New York: Routledge, 2016).

  46. 46.

    Dominiek Dendooven, “Living Apart Together: Belgian Civilians and Non-White Troops and Workers in Wartime Flanders,” in Race, Empire and First World War Writing, ed. Santanu Das (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Alison Fell, “Nursing the Other: The Representation of Colonial Troops in French and British First World War Nursing Memoirs,” in Race, Empire and First World War Writing, ed. Santanu Das (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 103. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

  47. 47.

    Michelle Moyd, “‘We don’t want to die for nothing’: Askari at War in German East Africa, 1914–1918,” in Race, Empire and First World War Writing, ed. Santanu Das (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 103.

  48. 48.

    Fogarty, Race and War.

  49. 49.

    George Morton-Jack, The Indian Army on the Western Front: India’s Expeditionary Force to France and Belgium in the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

  50. 50.

    See for example Andrew Jarboe, “The Long Road Home: Britain, Germany and the Repatriation of Indian Prisoners of War after the First World War,” in Colonial Soldiers in Europe, 1914–1945: “Aliens in Uniform” in Wartime, eds. Eric Strom and Ali Al Tuma (New York: Routledge, 2016), 140–157.

  51. 51.

    With reference to the First World War, see Lucian Hölscher, “The First World War as a ‘Rupture’ in the European History of the Twentieth Century: A Contribution to the Hermeneutics of Not-Understanding,” German Historical Institute London Bulletin 35:2 (2013): 73–87.

  52. 52.

    George Kennan, The Decline of Bismarck’s European Order: Franco-Prussian Relations, 1875–1890 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), 3.

  53. 53.

    Lawrence Besserman, “The Challenge of Periodization: Old Paradigms and New Perspectives,” in The Challenge of Periodization: Old Paradigms and New Perspectives, ed. Lawrence Besserman (New York: Routledge, 2013), 3–28.

  54. 54.

    Reinhart Koselleck, Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time, trans. Keith Tribe (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004); Peter Osborne, The Politics of Time: Modernity and Avant-Garde (London: Verso, 1995). More generally, see Chris Lorenz and Berber Bevernage, “Breaking up Time – Negotiating the Boundaries between Present, Past and Future,” in Breaking up Time: Negotiating the Boundaries between Present, Past and Future, eds. Chris Lorenz and Berber Bevernage (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2013), 9.

  55. 55.

    Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Culture of Defeat: On National Trauma, Mourning, and Recovery (London: Granta, 2003), 1–35.

  56. 56.

    Helmut Walser Smith, “The Vanishing Point of German History: An Essay on Perspective,” History & Memory 17:1–2 (2005): 289; Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914–1991 (London: Abacus, 1995).

  57. 57.

    Robert Gerwarth, The Vanquished: Why the First World War Failed to End, 1917–1923 (London: Allen Lane, 2016). See also Anthony McElligott, Rethinking the Weimar Republic: Authority and Authoritarianism, 1916–1936 (London: Bloomsbury, 2014); Matthew Stibbe, Germany 1914–1933: Politics, Society and Culture (Harlow: Longman, 2010); Ian Kershaw, To Hell and Back: Europe 1914–1949 (London: Allen Lane, 2015).

  58. 58.

    This is particularly true of more general histories: Hew Strachan, The First World War: A New Illustrated History (London: Simon & Schuster, 2003); Martin Gilbert, The First World War (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1994).

  59. 59.

    Robert Gerwarth and Erez Manela, eds., Empires at War 1911–1923 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014).

  60. 60.

    Peter Haslinger, “Austria-Hungary”, in Empires at War 1911–1923, eds. Robert Gerwarth and Erez Manela (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 87–88.

  61. 61.

    Christoph Mick, “The Dead and the Living: War Veterans and Memorial Culture in Interwar Polish Galicia,” in Sacrifice and Rebirth: The Legacy of the Last Habsburg War, eds. Mark Cornwall and John Paul Newman (Oxford: Berghahn, 2016), 252.

  62. 62.

    Omer Bartov, “Defining Enemies, Making Victims: Germans, Jews, and the Holocaust,” American Historical Review 103:3 (1998): 771–816.

  63. 63.

    Adrian Gregory, The Last Great War: British Society and the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 235–238.

  64. 64.

    Panayi, “Dominant Societies,” 5–6.

  65. 65.

    Abraham Gilman, “The Leeds Anti-Jewish Riots in 1917,” Jewish Quarterly 29:1 (1981): 34–37.

  66. 66.

    Isaiah Friedman, Germany, Turkey and Zionism 1897–1918 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 204; Tilman Lüdke, Jihad Made in Germany: Ottoman and German Propaganda and Intelligence Operations in the First World War (Münster: Lit, 2005).

  67. 67.

    Flanders Fields Museum, ed., Strangers in a Strange Land: Belgian Refugees 1914–1918 (Leuven: Davidsfonds, 2004). See also the special issue on Belgian refugees in: Immigrants & Minorities 34:2 (2016).

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  1. University of Chester, Chester, UK

    Hannah Ewence & Tim Grady

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  1. Hannah Ewence
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    Hannah Ewence

  2. University of Chester, Chester, United Kingdom

    Tim Grady

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Ewence, H., Grady, T. (2017). Introduction. Minority History: From War to Peace. In: Ewence, H., Grady, T. (eds) Minorities and the First World War. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53975-5_1

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