Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Evolution and Development of Best Practice in Paralympic Classification

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Palgrave Handbook of Paralympic Studies

Abstract

Classification is central to the existence of Para sport. Paralympic classification systems define who is eligible to compete in Para sport and promote participation by controlling for the impact of impairment on the outcome of competition. This chapter explains the evolution of Paralympic classification systems from the early medically based systems to the systems currently in use and the development of evidence-based systems which are mandated in all Para sports. The methods used in evidence-based classification systems should be supported by scientific evidence. Therefore, in addition to the historical context, this chapter also describes some of the key practical issues relating to the development of evidence-based classification systems such as the levels of evidence and types of research studies that are required.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    A new paradigm in this context represents an original explanatory theory that provides the scientific basis and structure for a complete field of scientific enquiry (Kuhn 2012).

  2. 2.

    In measurement theory, there are four general levels of scale: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Nominal scales are values with no ordering of the cases. Nationality, gender, football short numbers are examples of nominal scales. In ordinal scales, the values can be rank-ordered such as on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). However, the difference between 1 and 2 is not necessarily the same as the difference between 4 and 5—the differences are not interpretable which makes it difficult to use powerful statistics. In interval scales, the difference between values has meaning. For example, temperature in Celsius is measured on an interval scale, and the difference between 10 °C and 20 °C is the same as the difference between 30 °C and 40 °C. However, the zero on an interval scale is arbitrary, not absolute. Ratio scales are similar to interval scales but have a meaningful (absolute) zero. Mass in kilograms is measured on a ratio-scale.

References

  • Atkinson, G., and A.M. Nevill. 1998. Statistical Methods for Assessing Measurement Error (Reliability) in Variables Relevant to Sports Medicine. Sports Medicine 26 (4): 217–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beckman, E.M., and S.M. Tweedy. 2009. Towards Evidence-Based Classification in Paralympic Athletics: Evaluating the Validity of Activity Limitation Tests for Use in Classification of Paralympic Running Events. British Journal of Sports Medicine 43 (13): 1067–1072. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2009.061804.

  • Concato, J. 2004. Observational Versus Experimental Studies: What’s the Evidence for a Hierarchy? NeuroRx 1 (3): 341–347. https://doi.org/10.1602/neurorx.1.3.341.

  • Connick, M.J., E.M. Beckman, T. Ibusuki, L. Malone, and S.M. Tweedy. 2015a. Evaluation of Methods for Calculating Maximum Allowable Standing Height in Amputees Competing in Paralympic Athletics. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12586.

  • Connick, M.J., E.M. Beckman, J. Spathis, R. Deuble, and S.M. Tweedy. 2015b. How Much Do Range of Movement and Coordination Affect Paralympic Sprint Performance? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 47 (10): 2216–2223. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000643.

  • Connick, M.J., E.M. Beckman, and S.M. Tweedy. 2015c. Relative Age Affects Marathon Performance in Male and Female Athletes. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine 14 (3): 669–674.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connick, M.J., E. Beckman, and S.M. Tweedy. 2016. It’s Not Easy Keeping the Paralympics a Level Playing Field, but the Current System Is the Best There Is. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/its-not-easy-keeping-the-paralympics-a-level-playing-field-but-the-current-system-is-the-best-there-is-64951. Accessed 24 November 2016.

  • Cronbach, L.J., and P.E. Meehl. 1955. Construct Validity in Psychological Tests. Psychological Bulletin 52 (4): 281–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Damiano, D.L., and M.F. Abel. 1998. Functional Outcomes of Strength Training in Spastic Cerebral Palsy. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 79: 119–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, G.A. 2016. GB Paralympic Chief Denies Cheating Claims but Admits Classification Needs to Evolve. The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/paralympic-sport/2016/09/03/head-of-gb-paralympic-team-calls-for-tighter-controls-amid-claim/. Accessed 25 November 2016.

  • Evidence-Based Medicine Working, Group. 1992. Evidence-Based Medicine. A New Approach to Teaching the Practice of Medicine. JAMA 268 (17): 2420–2425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fulford, K., E. Peile, and H. Carroll. 2012. Essential Values-Based Practice: Clinical Stories Linking Science with People. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Glinsky, J., L. Harvey, and P. Van Es. 2007. Efficacy of Electrical Stimulation to Increase Muscle Strength in People with Neurological Conditions: A Systematic Review. Physiotherapy Research International 12 (3): 175–194. https://doi.org/10.1002/pri.375.

  • Gold, J.R., and M.M. Gold. 2007. Access for All: The Rise of the Paralympic Games. The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health 127 (3): 133–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenhalgh, T., J. Howick, N. Maskrey, and Group Evidence Based Medicine Renaissance. 2014. Evidence Based Medicine: A Movement in Crisis? BMJ 348: g3725. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g3725.

  • Grossman, J., and F.J. Mackenzie. 2005. The Randomized Controlled Trial: Gold Standard, or Merely Standard? Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 48 (4): 516–534. https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2005.0092.

  • Hallett, M., and N. Alvarez. 1983. Attempted Rapid Elbow Flexion Movements in Patients with Athetosis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 46 (8): 745–750.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hastie, T., R. Tibshirani, and J. Friedman. 2009. The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction, Springer Series in Statistics. 2nd ed. New York: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, W.G. 2000. Measures of Reliability in Sports Medicine and Science. Sports Medicine 30 (1): 1–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • International Paralympic Committee. 2007. IPC Classification Code and International Standards. Bonn: International Paralympic Committee.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2011. Evidence Based Classification – Current Best Practice. Bonn: International Paralympic Committee. Accessed 21 February 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2013. New IPC Classification Research Centre Opens in Brisbane. Bonn: International Paralympic Committee. https://www.paralympic.org/news/new-ipc-classification-research-centre-opens-brisbane. Accessed 24 November 2016.

  • ———. 2015. IPC Athlete Classification Code Rules, Policies and Procedures for Athlete Classification. Bonn: International Paralympic Committee.

    Google Scholar 

  • IPC Athletics. 2014. IPC Athletics Classification Rules and Regulations 2014–2015. Bonn, Germany: International Paralympic Committee.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, G., D. Witten, T. Hastie, and R. Tibshirani. 2013. An Introduction to Statistical Learning. New York: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kaptchuk, T.J. 2001. The Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial: Gold Standard or Golden Calf? Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 54 (6): 541–549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, M.P., I. Heath, J. Howick, and T. Greenhalgh. 2015. The Importance of Values in Evidence-Based Medicine. BMC Medical Ethics 16 (1): 69. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-015-0063-3.

  • Legg, D., T. Fay, E. Wolff, and M. Hums. 2015. The International Olympic Committee-International Paralympic Committee Relationship Past, Present and Future. Journal of Sport and Social Issues 39 (5): 371–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maglogiannis, I.G., K. Karpouzis, M. Wallace, and J. Soldatos. 2007. Emerging Artificial Intelligence Applications in Computer Engineering, Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications. Amsterdam: IOS Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morton, S.M., and A.J. Bastian. 2004. Cerebellar Control of Balance and Locomotion. The Neuroscientist 10 (3): 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858404263517.

  • Neilson, P.D. 1974. Voluntary Control of Arm Movement in Athetotic Patients. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 37 (2): 162–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nikles, J. 2015. What Are n-of-1 Trials? In The Essential Guide to N-of-1 Trials in Health, ed. J. Nikles and G. Mitchell. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Novacheck, T.F. 1998. The Biomechanics of Running. Gait and Posture 7: 77–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OCEBM Levels of Evidence Working Group. 2011. The Levels of Evidence Introductory Document. Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine. http://www.cebm.net/2011-oxford-cebm-levels-evidence-introductory-document/

  • O’Reilly, J., and S.H. Wong. 2012. The Development of Aerobic and Skill Assessment in Soccer. Sports Medicine 42 (12): 1029–1040. https://doi.org/10.2165/11635120-000000000-00000.

  • Rawlins, M. 2008. De Testimonio: On the Evidence for Decisions About the Use of Therapeutic Interventions. Clinical Medicine (London) 8 (6): 579–588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheean, G., and J.R. McGuire. 2009. Spastic Hypertonia and Movement Disorders: Pathophysiology, Clinical Presentation, and Quantification. PM & R: The Journal of Injury, Function, and Rehabilitation 1 (9): 827–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmrj.2009.08.002.

  • Stephens, D., and M. Diesing. 2014. A Comparison of Supervised Classification Methods for the Prediction of Substrate Type Using Multibeam Acoustic and Legacy Grain-Size Data. PloS One 9 (4): e93950. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093950.

  • Tate, R.L., M. Perdices, U. Rosenkoetter, D. Wakim, K. Godbee, L. Togher, and S. McDonald. 2013. Revision of a Method Quality Rating Scale for Single-Case Experimental Designs and n-of-1 Trials: The 15-item Risk of Bias in N-of-1 Trials (RoBiNT) Scale. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 23 (5): 619–638. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2013.824383.

  • Topka, H., J. Konczak, and J. Dichgans. 1998. Coordination of Multi-Joint Arm Movements in Cerebellar Ataxia: Analysis of Hand and Angular Kinematics. Experimental Brain Research 119 (4): 483–492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tweedy, S.M. 2002. Taxonomic Theory and the ICF: Foundations for a United Disability Athletics Classification. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 19: 220–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2003. Biomechanical Consequences of Impairment: A Taxonomically Valid Basis for Classification in a Unified Disability Athletics System. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 74 (1): 9–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tweedy, S.M., and P.D. Howe. 2011. Introduction to the Paralympic Movement. In Handbook of Sports Medicine and Science, The Paralympic Athlete, ed. Y.C. Vanlandewijck and W. Thompson. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tweedy, S.M., and Y.C. Vanlandewijck. 2011. International Paralympic Committee Position Stand – Background and Scientific Principles of Classification in Paralympic Sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine 45 (4): 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2009.065060.

  • Tweedy, S.M., G. Williams, and J. Bourke. 2011. Selecting and Modifying Methods of Manual Muscle Testing for Classification in Paralympic Sport. European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity 3 (2): 7–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tweedy, S.M., E.M. Beckman, and M.J. Connick. 2014. Paralympic Classification – Conceptual Basis, Current Methods and Research Update. PM&R 6 (8S): s11–s17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tweedy, S.M., D. Mann, and Y.C. Vanlandewijck. 2016. Research Needs for the Development of Evidence-Based Systems of Classification for Physical, Vision, and Intellectual Impairments. In Training and Coaching the Paralympic Athlete, ed. Y.C. Vanlandewijck and W.R. Thompson. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R.J., and F.L. Rousseau. 2001. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport and Exercise. In Handbook of Sport Psychology, ed. R.N. Singer, H.A. Hausenblaus, and C.M. Janelle. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westen, D., and R. Rosenthal. 2003. Quantifying Construct Validity: Two Simple Measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (3): 608–618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organisation. 2001. International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. Geneva: World Health Organisation.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This project has been carried out with the support of the International Paralympic Committee to develop evidence-based classification systems in Paralympic athletics . Sean Tweedy, Mark Connick and Emma Beckman are members of the IPC Classification Research and Development Centre for physical impairments , which is supported by the International Paralympic Committee.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia

    Mark J. Connick, Emma Beckman & Sean M. Tweedy

Authors
  1. Mark J. Connick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Emma Beckman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sean M. Tweedy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Business in Society, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom

    Ian Brittain

  2. University of St Mark and St John, Plymouth, United Kingdom

    Aaron Beacom

Copyright information

© 2018 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Connick, M.J., Beckman, E., Tweedy, S.M. (2018). Evolution and Development of Best Practice in Paralympic Classification. In: Brittain, I., Beacom, A. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Paralympic Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-47901-3_18

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-47901-3_18

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-137-47900-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-137-47901-3

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation