Abstract
This chapter addresses the little known history of the KMT’s training and use of interpreters. Reviewing the KMT’s changing demands of interpreters in the war—Chinese/German interpreters in the early 1930s, Chinese/Russian interpreters in the late 1930s, and Chinese/English interpreters in the early 1940s—it argues that the field of interpreting was directly affected by the KMT’s foreign policy and political strategies. Focusing on the KMT’s recruitment, training, and deployment of Chinese/English interpreters during its military collaboration with the USA, it discusses how the standards for ‘good interpreting’ and ‘loyal, honorable interpreters’ were established, reinforced, and embodied as part of the interpreters’ professional habitus. It concludes with a case study to explore a special group of these interpreters—university students.
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Notes
- 1.
This proposal was translated into Chinese for Jiang. The excerpts presented here is the official Chinese translation published by the No. 2 National Archive.
- 2.
However, there is no detailed information provided regarding the selection and training of interpreters in this file.
- 3.
The original file is in the US National Archive: Magruder (Peking) to Washington, June 3, 1929, 2657–I–357, US National Archive, Military Intelligence Division, Washington, D.C.
- 4.
Although clashes between Japan and China began in 1931, the war did not enter full scale until the Marco Polo Incident in July 1937.
- 5.
[Jiang Jieshi] Jiang Zhongzhengdianshi He Guoguang Kang Ze eguwen geyiyuan yingyou jianshi zuzhi meizhou ying xiangbao gongzuo 蒋中正电示贺国光康泽俄顾问各译员应有坚实组织每周应详报工作(Telegram from Jiang Zhongzheng to He Guoguang and Kang Ze about organizing interpreters for Russian advisers and submitting detailed weekly reports), July 19, 1938, National Historical Archive, Taipei (hereafter, NHAT) 002–010300–014–049–001x.
- 6.
Zhu Shaoliang deng dian Jiang Zhongzheng su ezhu gan ning daibiao qingqiu gaishan jichang jinjie yu yaoqiu chehuan fanyi deng wendian ribao biao 朱绍良等电蒋中正苏俄驻甘宁代表请求改善机场警戒与要求撤换翻译等文电日报表(Telegram from Zhu Shaoliang et al. to Jiang Zhongzheng concerning the requests from the Russian representatives in Gansu and Guangxi provinces to improve airport security and change interpreters), August 13, 1938, NHAT 002–080200–501–135–001x.
- 7.
Jiang Zhongzheng dian Zhu Shaoling Gu Zhenglun deng e’wen fanyiyuan yu taguo yuwen fanyiyuan tongdeng 蒋中正电朱绍良谷正伦等俄文翻译员与他国语文翻译员同等待遇 (Jiang’s telegram to Zhu Shaoliang, Gu Zhenglun and others about the suggestion that Chinese/Russian interpreters/translators should receive the same benefits as other language interpreters/translators), March 16, 1941, NHAT 002-070200-009-080.
- 8.
Junweihui suoshu waishiju guanyu kaiban waiyu xunlianban de baogao 军委会所属外事局关于开办外语训练班的报告(Proposal by the Military Affairs Commission to establish a foreign language [Chinese/English] interpreter training program under its Foreign Affairs Bureau), December 28, 1941, No. 2 National Historical Archive (Nanjing) of China (hereafter, NHA) 763–456.
- 9.
The Neutrality Acts were a “series of Acts passed at the height of isolationism, amidst fears that the desire for profits from the arms industry might fuel direct or indirect participation in war.…In 1939, the Act was amended, so that arms embargoes and authorized ‘cash and carry’ were allowed to be exported to any belligerent power, but it continued to forbid US ships to carry ‘belligerent cargo’” (Palmowski 1997: 440).
- 10.
“Statement on sending a military mission to China”, August 26, 1941, White House news release, http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/timeline/410826awp.html (accessed 2 May, 2008).
- 11.
As Young notes, according to letters from the US Department of State, from 1941 to 1946, the total US aid to China was adjusted from US $1,546 to around US $1,602 million because of reallocation and correction. Nevertheless, US $1,336 million was the number counted until the end of 1945 without consideration of these adjustments.
- 12.
See also, the Executive Agreements Series No. 251 or 56 Stat. 1494.
- 13.
China Defensive, John W. Mountcastle, U.S. Army Center of Military History. Online brochure 10, http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/72-38/72-38.htm (accessed 2 May, 2008).
- 14.
See also, the Executive Agreements Series No. 251 or 56 Stat. 1494, 20.
- 15.
See also, ibid., 10, 15.
- 16.
Zhongyang mishuchu anzhun guichu bennian jiuyue liuri tezi di qi liu wu hao mihan中央秘书处案准贵处本年九月六日特字第七六五号密函 (Approval of the internal report (special) no. 765 submitted on September 6), 7 September, 1943, NHA 736–349–45.
- 17.
Zhanqu meijun zongbu laihan yiwen waiyu xunlianban di’er qi biye laiju fuwu xueyuan mingce luqu mingdan shiyou yiguan tongjibiao 战区美军总部来函译文外语训练班第二期毕业来局服务学员名册录取名单实有译官统计表 (Translation of a letter from the U.S. headquarters in the Chinese theatre concerning the nominal role of the second group of FAB interpreters who have finished training, the number of qualified interpreters, and relevant statistics on extant interpreters), 17 October, 1944, NHA763–18.
- 18.
Ibid.
- 19.
Yilianhui Shouce 译联会手册 (Brochure of the Association of Interpreters)included a section on “ Interpreters who died for their country” (殉国译官简史), which provided some brief information on some military interpreters who died in their service. SMA Y7–1–0000072, 1946.
- 20.
Zhanqu meijun zongbu laihan yiwen waiyu xunlianban di’er qi biye laiju fuwu xueyuan mingce luqu mingdan shiyou yiguan tongjibiao 战区美军总部来函译文外语训练班第二期毕业来局服务学员名册录取名单实有译官统计表 (Translation of a letter from the U.S. headquarters in the Chinese theatre concerning the nominal role of the second group of FAB interpreters who have finished training, the number of qualified interpreters, and relevant statistics on extant interpreters), 17 October, 1944, NHA763–18.
- 21.
Ibid.
- 22.
Ibid.
- 23.
Junshi weiyuanhui waishiju kaoxuan gaoji yiyuan jianzhang yu sanshisi niandu军事委员会外事局考选高级译员简章(渝三十四年度) (the FAB’s advertisement for interpreter recruitment, Chongqing 1945), Hunan Provincial Archive (hereafter, HPA) 60–1–227–11.
- 24.
Junwei, hangwei, jiaoyubu guanyu zhengdiao yingyu fanyi renyuan de xunling gonghan deng cailiao 军委、航委教育部关于征调英语翻译人员的训令、剬函等材料 (Orders and government correspondence issued jointly by the Central Military Commission, Air Force Committee and the Ministry of Education on recruiting Chinese/English interpreters), HPA 61–1–38.
- 25.
Ibid.
- 26.
Zhongxuntuan yiyuan xunlian yi, san, si qi fenpei fanyiguan wen 中训团译员训练一三四期分配翻译官文 (On the appointment of interpreters trained in the interpreter training program, sessions 1, 3, 4, at the Central Training Organization), 6 June, 1944, NHA763–338–18.
- 27.
In Zhengdiao ge jiguan xuexiao gongjiao renyuan, xuesheng chongren yiyuan luqu mindan 征调各机关学校剬教人员、学生充任译员录取名单 (A list of government employees, university staff, and students recruited as interpreters), NHA 763–27. The original letter was written in English.
- 28.
Junweihui wei suoshu weishiju guanyu kaiban waiyu xunlianban de baogao zhiling, waiyu xunlianban zuzhi dagang 军委会为所属外事局关于开办外语训练班的报告、指令,外语训练班组织大纲 (the Military Commission’s report, instructions, and organizational guidelines for the Foreign Language Training Program), NHA 763–456.
- 29.
Unpublished source compiled in 1945 by the Liaison Group of the Foreign Affairs, Bureau National Military Council, provided to the author by retired interpreter, Yan Jiarui, during a personal interview on January 8, 2009.
- 30.
Junshi weiyuanhui waishiju yiyuan guanli guize minguo sanshisa nian qi yue ershiqi ri 军事委员会外事局译员管理规则 (Regulation of Management of the CMC’s FAB Interpreters), 27 July, 1943, NHA 763–452–36.
- 31.
Interpreting Officer Performance Rating Sheet, NHA 763–420–12.
- 32.
Yiyuan Jiangcheng 译员奖惩 (Rewards/Punishments for Interpreters), NHA 763–34.
- 33.
Some interpreters’ names are in the Wade-Giles system in the original documents. For accuracy, no conversion to pinyin system is made in this thesis.
- 34.
May 15, 1944.
- 35.
May 26, 1944.
- 36.
Guanyu zhongxuntuan yiyuan xunlianban tongxuelu ji xingzhengban, chongqing fentuan hunan tongxue deng fandong gugan de zhaopian 关于中训团译员训练班同学录及行政班,重庆分团湖南同学等反动骨干的照片 (The yearbook of the alumni interpreters trained at the Central Training Department of the administration’s training program, including photos of Hunan-born key members of the Central Training Department’s Chongqing branch), HPA 59–1–15.
- 37.
Zhongyang xunliantuan yiyuan xunlianban disiqi guanzuo tongxue tongxunlu 中央训练团译员训练班第四期官佐同学通讯录 (The yearbook of the alumni interpreters and officers in the Fourth Interpreter Training Program, at the Central Training Department), HPA 0–5–137.
- 38.
Junshi weiyuanhui waishiju kaoxuan gaoji yiyuan jianzhang (yu sanshisi niandu) 军事委员会外事局考选高级译员简章(渝三十四年度) (the FAB’s advertisement for interpreter recruitment, Chongqing, 1945), HPA 60–1–227–11.
- 39.
The information in Table 2.1 was also taken from the two alumni yearbooks, HPA0–5–137.
- 40.
The information listed in Table 2.2 was taken from the two alumni yearbooks, HPA 0–5–137.
- 41.
NHA763–338–18.
- 42.
All information quoted from this policy was translated by Wen Ha-hsing.
- 43.
Guoli zhongyang gongye zhuanke zhiye xuexiao, jiaowu lei: jiaoyu bu (daidian jian) No. 305 国立中央工业专科职业学校,教务类:教育部(代电建)第三零五号 (The Registry, National Central Industrial Professional College: Notice from the Ministry of Education (telegram no. 305)), CMA 0126–2–510–139 (full transcript of the original source).
- 44.
Xinan lianda xuesheng zhengdiao chongren yiyuan banfa 西南联大学生征调充任译员办法 (Regulations concerning the Southwest Associated University students’ applications to be an interpreter), December 3, 1943. See also Xu (1998), 668–9.
- 45.
Yan Jiarui, personal interview, January 8, 2009.
- 46.
For example, the well-known May Fourth Movement was kicked off by the protest by more than 3,000 Chinese students in Tiananmen Square in 1919.
- 47.
NHA 763–34.
- 48.
Jiaoyubu xunling gaozi No. 49361, 1943-10-9, wu zhengmingshu huixiao fuxue zhi yiyuan buzhun ruxue 教育部训令高字第49361号1943年10月九日, 无证明书回校复学之译员不准入学” (Orders from the Ministry of Education, HE 49361, 9 October, 1943, that interpreters without certificates should not be allowed to resume their university studies), HPA 61–1–38–7.
- 49.
This letter was found in the same file folder, HPA 61–1–38–7.
- 50.
Ibid.
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Guo, T. (2016). Responsibility and Accountability: Military Interpreters and the Chinese Kuomintang Government. In: Surviving in Violent Conflicts. Palgrave Studies in Languages at War. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-46119-3_2
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