Abstract
Iran has been searching for regional power status in the Middle East and the Persian Gulf, independent of regime type, since the 1970s. During the era of the last Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the first decade of the Islamic Republic, diplomacy was pursued through a proactive policy and use of hard power tools, including direct intervention in neighboring countries. Later on, soft power became more frequently used. This chapter details the strategies used by Iran to achieve status in the region and to some extent in the world at large. It argues that systemic factors have been the primary influence on Iran’s success or lack of such in achieving status. It concludes that Iran has indeed been a successful “middle power” both in pre-revolutionary times (when it was an ally of the USA as well as the Gulf monarchies) and in much of the revolutionary period when it managed to extend its “moral” and religious influence beyond its natural Gulf sphere of influence. More recently, however, post the Arab Spring, it has suffered setbacks in Iraq, Syria, and Bahrain, among other countries, in addition to which its nuclear ambitions have heightened regional distrust. Ironically, its negotiation of a nuclear agreement with the great powers and the United Nations in 2015 has not improved Iran’s regional status. On the contrary, the reaction from regional actors has been suspicion of the nuclear deal, and a renewed perception of threat emanating from Iran.
Research on this topic was funded by the Qatar National Research Fund (NPRP grant 6-028-5-006).
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Abdulghani, Jasim M. 1984. Iraq and Iran: The Years of Crisis. London: Croom Helm.
Afrasiabi, Kaveh. 1994. After Khomeini. New Directions in Iran’s Foreign Policy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Buzan, Barry, and Ole Waever. 2003. Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Chan, S., and A.J. Williams. 1994. Renegade States: The Evolution of Revolutionary Foreign Policy. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Chomsky, Noam. 2000. Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs. New York: South End Press.
Chubin, Shahram. 1994. Iran’s National Security Policies. Washington, DC: Carnegie/Brookings.
Chubin, Shahram, and Sepehr Zabih, eds. 1974. The Foreign Relations of Iran: A Developing State In A Zone of Great-Power Conflict. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Dehghan, Saeed Kamali. 2013. Ahmadinejad’s New Pet Phrase ‘Spring’ Infuriates Iranian Establishment. The Guardian, March 13. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/13/ahmadinejad-spring-infuriates-iranian-establishment
———. 2015. Iran Earns More from Tax than Oil for First Time in Almost 50 Years. The Guardian, September 27. Accessed 9 December 2015 http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/27/iran-tax-oil-first-time-50-years
Dergham, Raghida. 2014. The Doha GCC Summit: A Turning Point in Gulf Ties. Alarabiya News. Accessed 9 November 2015 http://english.alarabiya.net/en/views/news/middle-east/2014/12/07/The-Doha-GCC-Summit-A-turning-point-in-Gulf-ties-.html
Esposito, John, and Rouhollah K. Ramazani, eds. 2001. Iran at the Crossroads. New York: Palgrave.
Ehteshami, Anoushiravan. 1995. After Khomeini. The Iranian Second Republic. London: Routledge.
———. 2003. Iran-Iraq Relations After Saddam. The Washington Quarterly 26(4): 115–129.
Ehteshami, Anoushiravan, and Raymond Hinnebusch, eds. 1997. Syria and Iran: Middle Powers in A Penetrated Regional System. New York: Routledge.
Erdbrink, Thomas. 2012. Nonaligned Nations Back Iran’s Nuclear Bid, but Not Syria. New York Times, August 31. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/01/world/middleeast/iran-criticizes-egypts-mohamed-morsi-over-syria-comments.html?_r=0
Esposito, John L., and James Piscator. 1990. The Global Impact of the Iranian Revolution: A Policy Perspective. In The Iranian Revolution: Its Global Impact, ed. John Esposito. 317–328. Miami, FL: Florida International University Press).
Gholamzadeh, Hamid Reza. 2015. Death to America’ is Still Iran’s Policy. Mehr News Agency. August 24. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://en.mehrnews.com/news/109482/Death-to-America-still-Iran-s-policy
Halliday, Fred. 1979. Iran: Dictatorship and Development. New York: Penguin.
Haji-Yousefi, Amir Mohammad. 2012. Iran and the 2011 Arab Revolutions: Perceptions and Actions. Discourse: An Iranian Quarterly 10(1–2): 23–60.
Hunter, Shireen. 1990. Iran and the World. Continuity in a Revolutionary Decade. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Hunter, Shirren. 2010. Iran’s Foreign Policy in the Post-Soviet Era: Resisting the New International Order. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
Institute for Political and International Studies (IPIS). 1995. The Texts of Letters Exchanged between the Presidents of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Republic of Iraq 1369 (1990). Tehran: IPIS.
IranPolitik, The Iran Political Analysis Project. 2013. Khamenei, the Hassan and Hossein Doctrines, and ‘Heroic Flexibility’ versus ‘Heroic Resistance’ in Nuclear Negotiations. September 20. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.iranpolitik.com/2013/09/20/analysis/khamenei-hassan-hossein-doctrines-heroic-flexibility-heroic-resistance/
Jedinia, Mehdi. 2013. Ahmadinejad Declares ‘Viva Spring’ in Iran. AlMonitor, February 13. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/02/mahmoud-ahmadinejad-iran-viva-spring-iran-elections-larijani.html
Khamenei, A. 1997. Statement at the Eighth Session of the Islamic Summit Conference, Tehran, December 9, 1997. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.islam-pure.de/imam/speeches/speech1997.htm#09.12.1997
Khatami, M. 1997. Statement at the Eighth Session of the Islamic Summit Conference, Tehran, December 9. Accessed 10 November 2015 https://www.radioislam.org/islam/english/islamwo/khatami.htm
Khajepour, Bijan. 2014. Iran’s Budget Tackles Falling Oil Prices. Al Monitor, December 7. Accessed 9 December 2015 http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/12/1394-budget-iran-economy.html[al-monitor.com]
Klare, Michael. 1996. Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws: America’s Search for a New Foreign Policy. New York: Macmillan.
Lake, Anthony. 1994. Confronting Backlash States. Foreign Affairs 53(2): 45–55.
Litwark, Robert S. 2000. Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press.
Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance. 2015. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.farhang.gov.ir/en/profileofministry/responsibilities
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2015. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.mfa.gov.ir
Mohamedi, Fareed. 2014. The Oil and Gas Industry. The Iran Primer. Washington, DC: United States Institute for Peace. http://iranprimer.usip.org/sites/iranprimer.usip.org/files/PDF%20Economy_Mohamedi_Oil%20and%20Gas.pdf
Nolte, Detlef. 2010. How to Compare Regional Powers: Analytical Concepts and Research Topics. Review of International Studies 36(4): 881–901.
Nye, Joseph S. 2005. Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs.
Office of the Supreme Leader Sayyid Ali Khamenei. 2011. Islamic Revolution Inspired Uprisings. March 3. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.leader.ir/langs/en/?p=contentShow&id=7856
Press TV. 2012. Democracy Won’t Come Out of NATO Guns: Iran President. October 16. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.presstv.com/detail/2012/10/16/267053/democracy-wont-come-out-of-nato-guns/
Rakel, Eva Patricia. 2009. Power, Islam, and Political Elite in Iran. Boston: Brill.
Ramazani, Rouhollah K. 1966. The Foreign Policy of Iran: A Developing Nation in World Affairs, 1500–1941. Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia.
———. 1975. Iran’s Foreign Policy, 1941–1973: A Study of Foreign Policy in Modernizing Nations. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
———. 1983. Khumayni’s Islam in Iran’s Foreign Policy. In Islam in Foreign Policy, ed. Adeed Dawisha, 9–32. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
———. 1986. Revolutionary Iran: Challenge and Response in the Middle East. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
———. 1990. Iran’s Export of the Revolution: Politics, Ends and Means. In The Iranian Revolution: Its Global Impact, ed. John Esposito, 41–57. Miami: Florida International University Press.
———. 2001. Reflections on Iran’s Foreign Policy: Defining National Interest. In Iran at the Crossroads, eds. Rouhollah K. Ramazani and John Esposito, 211–237. New York: Palgrave.
Roberts, William. 2015. Riyadh ‘Satisfied’ with US Assurances on Iran Deal. Aljazeera, September 5. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/09/king-salman-obama-saudi-partnership-150904093310463.htm
Rodriguez Zahar, León. 1991. La Revolución Islámica-clerical de Irán, 1978–1989. Mexico City: El Colegio de México.
Starkey, Brigid Ann State. 1991. Culture and Foreign Policy: Exploring Linkages in the Muslim World. UMI Dissertation Services: University of Maryland.
United States. Department of State. 2015. Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.state.gov/e/eb/tfs/spi/iran/jcpoa/
Warnaar, Maaike. 2013. Iranian Foreign Policy during Ahmadinejad: Ideology and Actions. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
White House, Office of the Press Secretary. 2015. Statement by the President on the Framework to Prevent Iran from Obtaining a Nuclear Weapon. April 2. Accessed 10 November 2015 https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/04/02/statement-president-framework-prevent-iran-obtaining-nuclear-weapon
Zabih, Sepehr. 1982. Iran since the Revolution. London: Croom Helm.
Zumwalt, James. 2013. Outside View: Why U.S. is Losing Iraq and Why Iran Can’t Afford to United Press International, October 8. Accessed 10 November 2015 http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Analysis/Outside-View/2013/10/08/Outside-View-Why-US-is-losing-Iraq-and-why-Iran-cant-afford-to/21881381205100/
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Copyright information
© 2016 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Zaccara, L. (2016). Iran’s Permanent Quest for Regional Power Status. In: Braveboy-Wagner, J. (eds) Diplomatic Strategies of Nations in the Global South. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-45226-9_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-45226-9_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, New York
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-45225-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-137-45226-9
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)