Abstract
While many attitudes towards animals changed in regard to cruelty in the eighteenth century, the question of animal experimentation and the exploitation of animals used in research continued to resonate well into the nineteenth century and continues unabated today. Historical legislative victories notwithstanding, cruelty to animals, including their treatment in factory farming, “entertainment” and their use in laboratory experiments and medical procedures continues to be the focus of animal rights and animal activism. This chapter examines the use of animals in contemporary science where xenotransplantation, and bioengineering are on the rise. These practices require invasive experimental laboratory procedures, and while animal rights advocates and activists have been instrumental in challenging animal testing with regards to cosmetic use, drug testing, military field surgery and psychological experiments, research in bioengineering, cloning and xenotransplantation flourishes often beneath the radar of those who would oppose cruelty and the exploitation of animals for the benefit of humans.
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- 1.
K. Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500–1800 (London: Penguin Books, 1984), 144.
- 2.
Ibid., 144.
- 3.
Ibid., 144.
- 4.
Ibid., 149.
- 5.
K. Shevelow, For the Love of Animals: The Rise of the Animal Protection Movement (New York: Henry Holt, 2008), 140–41.
- 6.
Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 153.
- 7.
Shevelow, For the Love of Animals, 140–41.
- 8.
C. Lansbury, The Old Brown Dog: Women, Workers, and Vivisection in Edwardian England (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), 9.
- 9.
Ibid., 9.
- 10.
Ibid., 10.
- 11.
Ibid., 12.
- 12.
Shevelow, For the Love of Animals, 282.
- 13.
A. Taylor, Animals and Ethics: An Overview of the Philosophical Debate, 3rd ed. (Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2009), 120. Taylor cites a joint report by the Dr. Hadwen Trust and the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection on these numbers, taken from 2005.
- 14.
Marshall BioResources, accessed December 1, 2013, https://www.marshallbio.com/index.html. Beagles are advertised and patented as “Marshall Beagles.”
- 15.
Taylor, Animals and Ethics, 120.
- 16.
Antidote Europe, “Ray Greek on Medical Research,” June 15, 2010, http://antidote-europe.org/en/interviews/ray-greek-on-medical-research.
Also, according to Jeremy R. Garrett, “at present [2012], in the United States alone, between 17 and 50 million nonhuman vertebrates, including primates, dogs, cats, rabbits, hamsters, guinea pigs, birds, rats, and mice [numbers of latter two are difficult to determine as they do not count as animals], are bred, captured, or otherwise acquired every year for research purposes. Worldwide figures are obviously considerably larger, possibly numbering 100 million animals or more.” “The Ethics of Animal Research: An Overview of the Debate,” in The Ethics of Animal Research: Exploring the Controversy, ed. J. R. Garrett (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 3.
- 17.
Garrett, “Ethics of Animal Research,” 4.
- 18.
Ibid., 3.
- 19.
The “Three Rs” are (1) replacement of animals altogether through the use of alternatives; (2) reduction in the number of animals used; and (3) refinement of experiments to cause less suffering. See Taylor, Animals and Ethics, 122.
- 20.
Taylor, Animals and Ethics, 122.
- 21.
Researcher quoted in B. M. Lowe, “Perceiving the Minds of Animals,” in Experiencing Animal Minds: An Anthology of Human-Animal Encounters, eds. J. M. Smith and R. W. Mitchell (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 322.
- 22.
Deborah Blum, The Monkey Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 34.
- 23.
Taylor, Animals and Ethics, 144.
- 24.
B. E. Rollin, “Ethics and Animal Research,” in The Ethics of Animal Research: Exploring the Controversy, ed. J. R. Garrett (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 20.
- 25.
A. R. Morrison, An Odyssey with Animals: A Veterinarian’s Reflections on the Animal Rights and Welfare Debate (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 34.
- 26.
Taylor, Animals and Ethics, 130.
- 27.
Morrison, An Odyssey with Animals, 34.
- 28.
Rollin, “Ethics and Animal Research,” 23.
- 29.
D. J. Barnes, “A Matter of Change,” in In Defense of Animals, ed. P. Singer (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985), 159.
- 30.
Bloom, The Monkey Wars, 118, 194–95.
- 31.
I. Newkirk, Free the Animals (New York: Lantern Books, 2000), 196.
- 32.
Qtd. in Bloom, The Monkey Wars, 119.
- 33.
Ibid.
- 34.
D. Resnik, “Ethical Issues Concerning Transgenic Animals,” in The Ethics of Animal Research: Exploring the Controversy, ed. J. R. Garrett (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 176.
- 35.
Nuffield Council on Bioethics, Animal-to-Human Transplants: The Ethics of Xenotransplantation, March 1996, http://www.who.int/ethics/en/ETH_Nuffiled_xenotransplantation.pdf.
- 36.
D. K. D. Cooper and R. P. Lanza, Xeno: The Promise of Transplanting Animal Organs into Humans (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 27.
- 37.
Ibid., 28.
- 38.
Ibid., 28.
- 39.
Ibid., 28.
- 40.
Ibid., 29.
- 41.
Nuffield Council on Bioethics, Animal-to-Human Transplants, para. 10.12.
- 42.
Ibid., para. 10.15.
- 43.
Ibid., para. 1.6, emphasis mine.
- 44.
Ibid., para. 3.8.
- 45.
Resnik, “Ethical Issues,” 174.
- 46.
Ibid., 174.
- 47.
P. Rattue, “Xenotransplantation from Genetically Engineered Pigs,” Medical News Today, October 21, 2011, http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/236387.php.
- 48.
Ibid.
- 49.
A. Fiester, “Casuistry and the Moral Continuum: Evaluating Animal Biotechnology,” in The Ethics of Animal Research: Exploring the Controversy, ed. J. R. Garrett (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 182.
- 50.
M. Witten, “The Science and Politics of Genetically Modified Animals,” University Affairs, October 9, 2013, http://www.universityaffairs.ca/features/feature-article/science-and-politics-of-genetically-modified-animals/.
- 51.
Cruelty Free International, Experiments on Wild Baboons in Kenya, retrieved August 25, 2015, https://www.crueltyfreeinternational.org/what-we-do/investigations/experiments-wild-baboons-kenya, n.d.
- 52.
Witten, “Science and Politics.”
- 53.
Resnik, “Ethical Issues,” 174.
- 54.
Ibid., 175.
- 55.
Ibid., 175, emphasis mine.
- 56.
J. Derrida, “Violence against Animals,” in Jacques Derrida and Elizabeth Roudinesco: For What Tomorrow … A Dialogue, trans. J. Fort (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004), 65.
- 57.
Ibid., 65.
- 58.
Ibid., 73.
- 59.
Ibid., 73.
- 60.
Ibid., 73.
- 61.
B. Noske, Beyond Boundaries: Humans and Animals (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1997), 88.
- 62.
Derrida, “Violence against Animals,” 64.
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Castricano, J. (2018). Bioengineering, Animal Advocacy, and the Ethics of Control. In: Linzey, A., Linzey, C. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Practical Animal Ethics. The Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-36671-9_8
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