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Poland: Scientific Independence and Nordicism

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The Races of Europe

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Abstract

Nineteenth-century Polish anthropology, heavily dependent on foreign technical support, adopted the Celto-Slav race of Poland’s French geopolitical allies. However after the fin-de-siècle crisis of race anthropology and the rise of neo-romanticism, newly independent Poland became a leading international player in the new raciology, which its German national adversary dominated.

So if we wanted to breed this kind of pure racial stock, we would have to select from each population, individuals representing a certain race and isolate them in concentration camps, to stop them crossing with representatives of other races. This kind of experiment could be carried out successfully on horses, mice or sheep, but its use on people is unworkable even in a totalitarian system.

A Polish anthropologist in 1939 (Klimek 1939: 35–36).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Jasicki (1957: 18–19), Czekanowski (1948b: 17, 21 & 25), and Krzywicki (1969: 376).

  2. 2.

    Czekanowski (1948b: 19–20) and Stołyhwo (1957: 5–6).

  3. 3.

    Czekanowski (1920: 48–49), Schwidetzky (1935b: 80), and Skjerl (1936: 306).

  4. 4.

    Stołyhwo (1926b), Czekanowski (1920: 48–49), and Pogliano (2005: 32 & 45).

  5. 5.

    Czekanowski (1948a: 22).

  6. 6.

    Stojanowski (1930), Rosiński (1929: 273), and Pogliano (2005: 492).

  7. 7.

    Schwidetzky (1935b: 160–62); see Chapter 3.

  8. 8.

    Stołyhwo (1957: 10–11), Jasicki (1957: 18–19), and Godycki (1956: 17).

  9. 9.

    Făcăoaru (1938a: 208), Skjerl (1936: 285 & 299), and Stojanowski (1935: 34).

  10. 10.

    Skjerl (1936: 285 & 299) and Botez (1938: 9).

  11. 11.

    Stojanowski (1935: 34) and Lech (1997/1998: 49).

  12. 12.

    Schwidetzky (1935b: 80 & 83).

  13. 13.

    Jasicki (1957: 32–33).

  14. 14.

    Czekanowski (1956a: 9–12 & 20–27), Schwidetzky (1935b: 80–83), and Jasicki (1957: 33–37).

  15. 15.

    Pogliano (2005: 32) and Niederle (1926: 241).

  16. 16.

    Godycki (1956: 13 & 30) and Jasicki (1957: 18–19 & 35).

  17. 17.

    Matiegka (1924: 7–8).

  18. 18.

    Czekanowski (1956b: 6, 12–14, 19 & 23), Jasicki (1957: 34–35), and Malinowski and Wolański (1985: 39).

  19. 19.

    Mogilner (2013: 203).

  20. 20.

    Czekanowski (1948b: 32–33).

  21. 21.

    Tildesley (1928: 353–58).

  22. 22.

    Majer and Kopernicki (1877: 127–30), Talko-Hryncewicz (1916: 411 & 419), and Stojanowski (1924: 664).

  23. 23.

    Czekanowski (1948a).

  24. 24.

    Jasicki (1957: 18–19), Godycki (1956: 32), and Matiegka (1924: 8).

  25. 25.

    Godycki (1956: 32).

  26. 26.

    Wrzosek (1959).

  27. 27.

    Lech (1997/1998: 41 & 46–47), Czekanowski (1948a: 124–174), and Ćwirko-Godycki (1935: 12–13).

  28. 28.

    Czekanowski (1956a: 21–22).

  29. 29.

    Wrzosek (1959).

  30. 30.

    Krzywicki (1969: 376 & 384), Reicher and Sylwanowicz (1956: 9), and Czekanowski (1956a: 23–25).

  31. 31.

    Lech (1997/1998: 41 & 46–47).

  32. 32.

    Bielicki et al. (1985: 21).

  33. 33.

    1935b: 33.

  34. 34.

    Schwidetzky (1935b: 83) and Lech (1997/1998: 48–49).

  35. 35.

    Fee (1979: 429–31).

  36. 36.

    Bielicki et al. (1985: 21).

  37. 37.

    Stojanowski (1924: 663), Mydlarski (1926: 188), and Czekanowski (1928b: 336).

  38. 38.

    Czekanowski (1928b: 341–42 & 345) and Malinowski and Wolański (1985: 50).

  39. 39.

    Coon (1939: 289). Sergi similarly celebrated Italy’s ‘arrival’ in the core by declaring independence from current norms (see Chapter 4).

  40. 40.

    Schwidetzky (1935b: 149–52 & 162–63 & 195–96), Mydlarski (1928b: 224), and Hildén (1928: 221).

  41. 41.

    Stołyhwo (1926b: 146) and Mydlarski (1928b: 224).

  42. 42.

    Czekanowski (1928b: 336–37, 343 & 356–57) and Stojanowski (1930: 4). Easteuropean is one of several competing contemporary terms for this type.

  43. 43.

    Czekanowski (1948a: 17, 1956a: 42).

  44. 44.

    Schwidetzky (1935b: 80), Skjerl (1936: 285, 299 & 306).

  45. 45.

    Rosiński (1928b: 224) and Mydlarski (1928b: 224).

  46. 46.

    Czekanowski (1948a: 31–34).

  47. 47.

    Schwidetzky (1935b: 162–63) and Stołyhwowa (1937: 45).

  48. 48.

    Rączkowski (1996: 197).

  49. 49.

    Tornquist-Plewa (2002: 221), Sklenář (1983: 94), and Rączkowski (1996: 192–93).

  50. 50.

    Cuisenier (1999: 31–32) and Barford (2001: 273).

  51. 51.

    Czekanowski (1956a: 42), Rączkowski (1996: 190–97), and Sklenář (1983: 94).

  52. 52.

    Rączkowski (1996: 198).

  53. 53.

    Lech (1997/1998: 37).

  54. 54.

    Stojanowski (1935: 34).

  55. 55.

    Matiegka (1924: 7), Jasicki (1957: 35), and Wrzosek (1959).

  56. 56.

    Jasicki (1957: 35) and Wrzosek (1959).

  57. 57.

    Manouelian (2000: 392).

  58. 58.

    Czekanowski (1920: 59–62) and Rączkowski (1996: 197).

  59. 59.

    Stojanowski (1935: 34).

  60. 60.

    Tornquist-Plewa (2002: 222–23) and Rączkowski (1996: 201).

  61. 61.

    Barford (2001: 272) and Cuisenier (1999: 32).

  62. 62.

    Barford (2001: 273) and Tornquist-Plewa (2002: 223).

  63. 63.

    Godycki (1956: 12–13 & 28) and Stołyhwo (1957: 6–7, 12 & 16).

  64. 64.

    Matiegka (1924: 6–8) and Stocky (1924: 55).

  65. 65.

    Bielicki et al. (1985: 3).

  66. 66.

    Matiegka (1924: 11) and Schwidetzky (1935b: 77).

  67. 67.

    Rączkowski (1996: 190–94), Tornquist-Plewa (2002: 225–28), and Lech (1997/1998: 29).

  68. 68.

    Rączkowski (1996: 195).

  69. 69.

    Kopernicki (1883: 34).

  70. 70.

    Majer and Kopernicki (1877: 10–20 & 49).

  71. 71.

    Virchow (1873: 196) and Kopernicki (1883: 40).

  72. 72.

    Sklenář (1983: 149).

  73. 73.

    Bielicki et al. (1985: 4).

  74. 74.

    Czekanowski (1948b: 29, 1956b: 13–17), Krzywicki (1969: 393), and Schwidetzky (1935b: 78).

  75. 75.

    Kostrzewski (1927: 1–2), Barford (2001: 278), and Rączkowski (1996: 204).

  76. 76.

    Bielicki et al. (1985: 4).

  77. 77.

    Buschan (1890: 31) and Talko-Hryncewicz (1914:188–89).

  78. 78.

    Barford (2001: 274), Rączkowski (1996: 200), and Lech (1997/1998: 35 & 52–54).

  79. 79.

    Rączkowski (1996: 194) and Lech (1997/1998: 43).

  80. 80.

    Kostrzewski (1926: 8), Rączkowski (1996: 200), and Buschan (1890: 1–2).

  81. 81.

    Sklenář (1983: 161) and Rączkowski (1996: 203–6). Sources disagree whether this helped ‘lower the temperature’ (Rączkowski 1996: 203–6) or was a plot to silence the Poles, which backfired by inspiring Czech solidarity (Sklenář 1983: 161).

  82. 82.

    Rączkowski (1996: 198 & 203–5), Barford (2001: 278), and Lech (1997/1998: 34). To justify annexing German territories in 1945, the Communist regime continued supporting him (Kurnatowska and Kurnatowski 2002: 99).

  83. 83.

    Sklenář (1983: 149) and Wijworra (1996: 175).

  84. 84.

    1926: 6–7.

  85. 85.

    Sklenář (1983: 161) and Barford (2001: 275–76).

  86. 86.

    Kurnatowska and Kurnatowski (2002: 99), Jasicki (1957: 39–40), and Kostrzewski (1926: 7, 1927: 2 & 8).

  87. 87.

    Kostrzewski (1927: 2–9).

  88. 88.

    1937: 227–28, 1948a: 16.

  89. 89.

    Tornquist-Plewa (2002: 221–23).

  90. 90.

    Rączkowski (1996: 202–3), Czekanowski (1948b: 29), and Schwidetzky (1935b: 78).

  91. 91.

    Sklenář (1983: 155–56), Proctor (1988: 48), and Kühl (1997: 23 & 66–68).

  92. 92.

    Rączkowski (1996: 202–3).

  93. 93.

    Mydlarski (1928a: 195), Schwidetzky (1935b: 85, 165–66 & 199), Bielicki et al. (1985: 10–11); Responding to a War Ministry decision to examine 1 % of the male population, which partly aimed to design equipment more efficiently, this organised anthropometric and sero-anthropological measurement squads, mostly of medical students, and then mapped their results (Mydlarski 1926: 186–89).

  94. 94.

    Czekanowski (1920: 52 & 67), Lech (1997/1998: 48–49), and Klimek (1939: 24 & 29–34).

  95. 95.

    1939: 29–34.

  96. 96.

    1930: 3 & 11.

  97. 97.

    Jasicki 1957: 32–37.

  98. 98.

    He was however curiously open to the idea that the ancient Poles had absorbed and been racially influenced by proto-historic Germanic Goths (Godycki 1956: 28; Schwidetzky 1935b: 298–99; Czekanowski 1920: 53, 1928b: 355).

  99. 99.

    1920: 53, 1937: 227.

  100. 100.

    Czekanowski (1948a: 17) and Schwidetzky (1935b: 199).

  101. 101.

    Fischer (1936: 284).

  102. 102.

    1937: 3.

  103. 103.

    Czekanowski (1920: 52).

  104. 104.

    Talko-Hryncewicz (1914: 193), Kostrzewski (1939: 218–19), and Klimek (1932: 24).

  105. 105.

    Zograf (1893: 7 & 11) and Mogilner (2013: 124–25 & 176).

  106. 106.

    Czekanowski (1948a: 31–34) and Stojanowski (1924: 712, 732 & 763).

  107. 107.

    Or Z Otchłanu Wieków—the title of a leading Polish archaeological journal.

  108. 108.

    1937: 4–5 & 8.

  109. 109.

    Broc (1836: 33).

  110. 110.

    Czekanowski (1928b: 355 & 358, 1937: 228).

  111. 111.

    Stojanowski (1930: 9), Czekanowski (1948b: 22, 1956b: 6 & 23), and Schwidetzky (1935b: 299).

  112. 112.

    Bielicki et al. (1985: 21).

  113. 113.

    Rosiński (1929: 273), Schwidetzky (1935b: 293–95), and Stojanowski (1930: 8).

  114. 114.

    Rosiński (1929: 270 & 274) and Pogliano (2005: 50).

  115. 115.

    1930: 12.

  116. 116.

    1933:60–64.

  117. 117.

    Klimek (1932: 30), Czekanowski (1920: 52–53 & 62), Rosiński (1929: 266–67 & 273), and Stojanowski (1930: 8).

  118. 118.

    Czekanowski (1928b: 355) and Rosiński (1929: 273–75).

  119. 119.

    Rosiński (1929: 273–75) and Stojanowski (1930: 9).

  120. 120.

    Wrzosek (1959: 116–17), Czekanowski (1948a: 15 & 19), and Schwidetzky (1935b: 83).

  121. 121.

    1939: 26–27, 31–35 & 40.

  122. 122.

    Talko-Hryncewicz (1914: 192), Jasicki (1957: 28), and Potkański (1902: 248).

  123. 123.

    Czekanowski (1956b: 25), Talko-Hryncewicz (1914: 193–94 & 356), and Rutkowski (1906: 63–67).

  124. 124.

    Mogilner (2013: 74–75, 177 & 215).

  125. 125.

    Czekanowski (1920: 52–67).

  126. 126.

    Talko-Hryncewicz (1902: 761, 1914: 189–191), Potkański (1902: 261), Czekanowski (1948b: 26), and Rutkowski (1906: 63 & 66).

  127. 127.

    Cuisenier (1999: 31); see Chapter 4.

  128. 128.

    1920: 63, 1937: 227.

  129. 129.

    Czekanowski (1937: 227–32) and Schwidetzky (1935b: 149–51 & 163–64).

  130. 130.

    Klimek (1939: 35–37), Czekanowski (1937: 227), and Bielawski (2000: 1).

  131. 131.

    Żejmo-Żejmis (1933: 58–66).

  132. 132.

    Malinowski and Wolański (1985: 43), Majer and Kopernicki (1877: 127), and Krzywicki (1969: 378–79).

  133. 133.

    Czekanowski (1948a: 9 & 12).

  134. 134.

    Majer and Kopernicki (1877: 126), Talko-Hryncewicz (1914: 362), and Czekanowski (1948a: 9 & 12).

  135. 135.

    Retzius (1864a: 8), Matiegka (1924: 5), and Weisbach (1874: 306–7 & 315).

  136. 136.

    Jasicki (1957: 18–19), Godycki (1956: 26), and Kopernicki (1877: 612–20).

  137. 137.

    Kopernicki (1877: 619), Krzywicki (1969: 419–20 & 423), and Godycki (1956: 27).

  138. 138.

    Retzius (1864b: 8), Matiegka (1924: 5), and Czekanowski (1937: 231).

  139. 139.

    Talko-Hryncewicz (1914:188).

  140. 140.

    Majer and Kopernicki (1877: 126), Olechnowicz (1902b: 295), and Malinowski and Wolański (1985: 38).

  141. 141.

    Olechnowicz (1902a: 41), Czekanowski (1948b: 21), and Talko-Hryncewicz (1914: 192).

  142. 142.

    Quatrefages (1871: 19–22), Knox (1850: 364–65), and Retzius (1864a: 11). The French ethnologist P.P. Broc’s tall, blond, brave Slavo-Teutons tended to fat, bad teeth, hard liquor and great stamina (1836: 23 & 31–32). The women had ‘remarkably ample forms;… a particular odour’, late puberty, ‘very large external genital parts’ and gave birth easily.

  143. 143.

    Olechnowicz (1902a: 39), Potkański (1902: 248), and Rutkowski (1906: 61 & 66).

  144. 144.

    1893: 1–3 & 7.

  145. 145.

    Olechnowicz (1902b: 295).

  146. 146.

    Talko-Hryncewicz (1914: 194 & 357), Quatrefages (1871: 20–21). A fashionable tuberculosis sanatorium in the Carpathian town of Zakopane played an important part in this (Manouelian 2000: 391–94).

  147. 147.

    Manouelian (2000: 393–94), Niederle (1916: 86–87), and Majer and Kopernicki (1877: 4).

  148. 148.

    Majewski (1905: 162) and Czekanowski (1948b: 25).

  149. 149.

    Hölder (1876: 8), Virchow (1950: 189), and Potkański (1902: 245–6).

  150. 150.

    Lissauer (1872: 123).

  151. 151.

    Czekanowski (1937: 232) and Müller (1879: 87–88).

  152. 152.

    Stojanowski (1948: 1) and Virchow (1873: 196).

  153. 153.

    Sklenář (1983: 95 & 125).

  154. 154.

    Buschan (1890: 17–18), Talko-Hryncewicz (1914: 188–89), and Müller (1877: 191–95).

  155. 155.

    Sklenář (1983: 110–14 & 125–26), Collis (2003: 85), and Müller (1877: 191–92 & 195).

  156. 156.

    Kopernicki (1883: 3 & 40), Virchow (1896: 24), and Potkański (1902: 245–6).

  157. 157.

    Buschan (1890: 37).

  158. 158.

    Mogilner (2013: 139).

  159. 159.

    1880: 108 & 110.

  160. 160.

    Buschan (1890: 37).

  161. 161.

    Mazumdar (1990: 197).

  162. 162.

    Buschan (1890: 36–37), Krzywicki (1969: 423), and Stojanowski (1924: 713).

  163. 163.

    Matiegka (1924: 10), Potkański (1902: 244–47), and Krzywicki (1969: 423).

  164. 164.

    1893: 7–11.

  165. 165.

    Bunak (1932: 494–95).

  166. 166.

    Czekanowski (1937: 232, 1967: 44), Potkański (1902: 244–56), and Rutkowski (1906: 63–67).

  167. 167.

    Potkański (1902: 253–54).

  168. 168.

    Potkański (1902: 253) and Rutkowski (1906: 65–66).

  169. 169.

    1948b: 2.

  170. 170.

    Czekanowski (1948b: 22, 1956b: 6 & 23).

  171. 171.

    Krzywicki (1969: 422–23) and Zograf (1893: 7 & 11).

  172. 172.

    1935b: 194–98.

  173. 173.

    Stojanowski (1930: 12), Klimek (1932: 18 & 30), and Czekanowski (1928b: 355).

  174. 174.

    Klimek (1932: 18 & 30) and Czekanowski (1937: 227).

  175. 175.

    1928b: 355.

  176. 176.

    Czekanowski (1928b: 355 & 358), Rosiński (1929: 266), and Klimek (1932: 30).

  177. 177.

    1933: 60–61.

  178. 178.

    Schwidetzky (1935b: 297).

  179. 179.

    Stojanowski (1930: 2, 6–9 & 12) and Klimek (1939: 28).

  180. 180.

    Stojanowski (1930: 6–7) and Klimek (1939: 21).

  181. 181.

    1930: 5 & 11.

  182. 182.

    1930: 10–11.

  183. 183.

    1939: 34–38.

  184. 184.

    1932: 18, 24 & 30.

  185. 185.

    Klimek (1939: 29–34).

  186. 186.

    1929: 274.

  187. 187.

    1933: 58 & 65–66.

  188. 188.

    1933: 60–61 & 64–66.

  189. 189.

    1933: 63–66.

  190. 190.

    1920: 63; 1937: 227.

  191. 191.

    French anthropologists coined this term in the 1870s for palaeolithic European aboriginal ancestors of Lapps and Finns, who were since largely ‘expelled or absorbed’ (Quatrefages 1889: 313 & 447–51). Schwidetzky said Czekanowski used them to mop up ‘occasionally Mongoloid features’ in Poland, by including both ‘individuals with true Mongolisms’ and ‘crudely manifested Alpine’ features (1935b: 149 & 163–64). True to form, he also exploited a ‘very ancient’ ‘Lapponoid zone’ to support Poland’s national claim to Silesia (1937: 228–30).

  192. 192.

    Czekanowski (1937: 227 & 232) and Schwidetzky (1935b: 149 & 151).

  193. 193.

    1937: 227.

  194. 194.

    Klimek (1939: 35–36).

  195. 195.

    Haddon (1924: 27).

  196. 196.

    Günther (1933: 66–68 & 111), Eickstedt (1934: 369–70), Kemilainen (1994: 403–4), Skjerl (1936: 290), and Schwidetzky (1935a: 93).

  197. 197.

    Montandon (1933: 242) and Mazumdar (1990: 200).

  198. 198.

    Czekanowski (1948a: 30), Jasicki (1957: 36–37), and Stołyhwo (1926a: 154).

  199. 199.

    Hildén (1928: 221), Schwidetzky (1935b: 153 & 163), Stołyhwo (1926a: 153–54), and Bunak (1932: 464).

  200. 200.

    1948a: 30.

  201. 201.

    Czekanowski (1948a: 34).

  202. 202.

    1926a: 152–53.

  203. 203.

    1926a: 154.

  204. 204.

    1926b: 147.

  205. 205.

    Poniatowski (1928: 218–19).

  206. 206.

    1920: 66–67, 1928b: 355.

  207. 207.

    Rosiński (1929: 266–67) and Schwidetzky (1935b: 195 & 197).

  208. 208.

    1929: 270 & 274.

  209. 209.

    Schwidetzky (1935b: 149–51 & 162–63 & 195–96) and Mydlarski (1928b: 224).

  210. 210.

    1935b: 149–53 & 162–63 & 195–98.

  211. 211.

    Stojanowski (1924: 761), Czekanowski (1948a: 30 & 34). Though accepting that racial genetics remained a mystery, German critics doubted that ‘of all’ Nordic characteristics, broadheaded Subnordics should inherit ‘recessive fair pigmentation’ (Schwidetzky 1935b: 149–54 & 199). German race scientists used the supposed genetic frailty of light pigmentation to maximise Germany’s own hidden Nordic cross-breeds.

  212. 212.

    1935b: 149–50 & 198.

  213. 213.

    See Chapter 4; McMahon (2009: 584–85).

  214. 214.

    Schwidetzky (1935b: 295–96).

  215. 215.

    Rosiński (1929: 273–74) and Schwidetzky (1935b: 293–95).

  216. 216.

    Rosiński (1929: 273) and Schwidetzky (1935b: 294).

  217. 217.

    Pogliano (2005: 50), Rosiński (1929: 273–4), and Schwidetzky (1935b: 293–95).

  218. 218.

    Schwidetzky 1935b: 299–300 and Czekanowski (1956b: 8).

  219. 219.

    Stojanowski (1924: 762), Rosiński (1929: 266), and Mydlarski (1926: 188–89).

  220. 220.

    Rosiński (1928a: 274, 1929: 266, 270 & 274).

  221. 221.

    Potkański (1902: 244).

  222. 222.

    Czekanowski (1956a: 41–42), Schwidetzky (1935b: 152, 162–64, 199 & 302). Sharp Germans criticisms might ironically have promoted foreign interest in Czekanowski’s unorthodox system however (Skjerl 1936: 285 & 299).

  223. 223.

    Mogilner (2013: 119–20).

  224. 224.

    Proctor (1988: 142).

  225. 225.

    Sklenář (1983: 125) and Lech (1997/1998: 52–54).

  226. 226.

    Rączkowski (1996: 204) and Sklenář (1983: 91).

  227. 227.

    1997/1998: 48 & 52.

  228. 228.

    Tornquist-Plewa (2002: 228).

  229. 229.

    Lech (1997/1998: 27) and Cuisenier (1999: 30–31).

  230. 230.

    Texts in bold type were used to compile the statistical database.

Bibliography

Texts in bold type were used to compile the statistical database.

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McMahon, R. (2016). Poland: Scientific Independence and Nordicism. In: The Races of Europe. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-31846-6_6

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