Abstract
This chapter examines the stories that race classifiers told about nations and other social identities in Europe. Races were initially equated with ethno-linguistic groups like Celts, Teutons and Slavs, which romanticism made central to national political identity.
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It is indeed of importance that all lovers of true science should do all they can to resist this thirst of the great public for sensational stories, which bring true science into discredit. The great public, as well as the scientists, ought to be conscious of the great difficulties connected with anthropological science and should not draw hasty conclusions (Retzius 1909: 312).
The North European race branch cannot properly adapt itself to the demands made upon it by industrialism… It requires high wages for a moderate amount of work and short hours, that it may have time to indulge in pleasure and enjoyment.
The brachycephalic individual of Middle Europe, on the other hand, seems to be far better suited for the demands of industrial life; he is satisfied with a little, is possessed of patience and endurance even when things are dull and dreary, and his work tiring and little remunerative; he is not so much addicted to expensive forms of recreation, but lays by money for his family and for old age’ (Retzius 1909: 300).
The Swedish Anthropologist Gustaf Retzius
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Notes
- 1.
Retzius for example claimed Swedes were the purest Nordics, and that Nordic race psychology matched ‘the Scandinavian peoples excellently’ (1909: 301 & 306).
- 2.
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.
1897: 126.
- 6.
- 7.
To preserve the distinction in most European languages between ancient Germanic peoples and modern Germans, I call the former ‘Teutons’.
- 8.
- 9.
Knox (1850: 49–50).
- 10.
Blanckaert (1988: 31).
- 11.
Houzé (1883: 90).
- 12.
- 13.
- 14.
Reynaud-Paligot (2011: 161).
- 15.
- 16.
Poliakov (1971: 117).
- 17.
- 18.
- 19.
1850: 47.
- 20.
Poliakov (1971: 97–113 & 119).
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
- 24.
- 25.
- 26.
- 27.
Mandler (2006: 42–60).
- 28.
Ballantyne (2002: 5).
- 29.
Leerssen (1996: 90).
- 30.
Manias (2013: 187–88).
- 31.
- 32.
- 33.
- 34.
Day (1997: 109).
- 35.
Horsman (1976: 393).
- 36.
- 37.
- 38.
- 39.
Sklenář (1983: 91).
- 40.
Vanderkindere (1883: 94).
- 41.
- 42.
- 43.
Blanckaert (1989: 182).
- 44.
- 45.
- 46.
- 47.
- 48.
- 49.
- 50.
Pruner-Bey (1864c: 223–24 & 235).
- 51.
- 52.
- 53.
Beddoe (1905: 237).
- 54.
- 55.
- 56.
- 57.
Thiesse (2001: 28 & 175).
- 58.
- 59.
- 60.
Chapman (1992: 203).
- 61.
- 62.
Collis (2003: 71–73).
- 63.
- 64.
- 65.
Reynaud-Paligot (2011: 67–70).
- 66.
Poliakov (1971: 62–64).
- 67.
- 68.
- 69.
Poliakov (1971: 42–48 & 62), Mosse (1978: 48–49), and Dietler (1994: 588 & 592). Just as British nationalists exploited Celtic symbols like the Ossianic and Arthurian legends, French nationalists from the 1790s to the Asterix and Obelix comics appropriated Bretons as the purest descendants of France’s Gauls (Thiesse 2001: 54 & 125). French nationalist anthropologists therefore bridled at 1840s–1850s archaeological theories that convincingly traced Bretons from fourth-century British immigrants (Lagneau 1866: 504; Broca 1866: 503–4).
- 70.
- 71.
- 72.
- 73.
- 74.
Dietler (1994: 591–92).
- 75.
- 76.
The name Bohemia is of Celtic origin. The European Union also appropriates Celtic identity, subsidising international archaeology exhibitions with subtitles like ‘An Early Form of European Unity’ and at least one work aimed to give French and English-speaking Canadians a common Celtic background (Dietler 1994: 595–96; Zapatero 1993: 54; Quinn 2005: 128).
- 77.
- 78.
- 79.
Manias (2013: 196).
- 80.
- 81.
- 82.
- 83.
- 84.
- 85.
Holzmann (1855: 4–5).
- 86.
- 87.
- 88.
Tristram (1990: 12–13).
- 89.
- 90.
- 91.
Broca (1873: 586).
- 92.
Edwards (1841: 51–53 & 59; 1845: 18).
- 93.
- 94.
- 95.
- 96.
- 97.
- 98.
Bonté (1864a: 282).
- 99.
- 100.
Campbell (1870: 411).
- 101.
Périer (1864: 621–22 & 624).
- 102.
- 103.
Spencer (1997c: 358).
- 104.
- 105.
- 106.
- 107.
1873: 578–79.
- 108.
- 109.
- 110.
- 111.
- 112.
- 113.
- 114.
Franz Pruner received the title of Bey as private doctor to the Egyptian Viceroy Abbas Pacha, and after 1860, become ‘the second man’ of the Paris Anthropological Society (Blanckaert 1989: 184). The Franco-Prussian War ‘brutally’ ended his role in French anthropology. The Society’s journal granted him no obituary.
- 115.
Blanckaert (1989: 183–84 & 187).
- 116.
Gould (1981: 99).
- 117.
- 118.
1864b: 664–65.
- 119.
- 120.
- 121.
Houzé (1883: 93).
- 122.
- 123.
- 124.
- 125.
Blanckaert (1989: 186–87).
- 126.
Blanckaert (1989: 187).
- 127.
1849: 225–26.
- 128.
- 129.
- 130.
- 131.
- 132.
1864a: 405–9.
- 133.
1864d: 332–33.
- 134.
- 135.
- 136.
Borlase (1897: 995).
- 137.
- 138.
Ripley (1900: 125–26), Spencer (1997c: 358), and Eickstedt (1934: 384). This became such a convention that by the 1980s, anthropologists were using the two races as technical standards, choosing specimens from the most Kymric and Celtic départements, on the basis of such accepted features as ‘flattening of the occipital region’ (Collignon 1883: 470–71).
- 139.
- 140.
- 141.
- 142.
Hannaford (1996: 288).
- 143.
Trubeta (2007: 131).
- 144.
1860b: 8.
- 145.
- 146.
Obédénare (1877: 254).
- 147.
- 148.
Sergi (1993: 182–83).
- 149.
- 150.
Zimmerman (2001: 135–36 & 144–45).
- 151.
Evans (2010: 75).
- 152.
- 153.
- 154.
- 155.
Zimmerman (2001: 137).
- 156.
This remains the practice of present-day genetic anthropology (see epilogue) and explains why anthropologists preferred to study isolated peasants (see Chapter 2).
- 157.
2001: 137 & 142–43.
- 158.
1996: 90.
- 159.
- 160.
Evans (2010: 75–80).
- 161.
- 162.
Manias (2013: 136 & 195–97).
- 163.
- 164.
- 165.
- 166.
1977: 1134.
- 167.
- 168.
- 169.
- 170.
- 171.
Sklenář (1983: 92–93).
- 172.
- 173.
- 174.
Bollenbeck (1999: 289–95).
- 175.
- 176.
- 177.
- 178.
Knox (1850: 46 & 59).
- 179.
- 180.
Curtis (1968: 27 & 31).
- 181.
- 182.
- 183.
Curtis (1968: 6–7), Horsman (1976: 400 & 410), and Avery (1869: ccxxv). A rationalisation not wholly extinct in London or Washington. Knox admitted that Saxons extended their exceptional sense of fair play ‘only to Saxons’, so German liberal revolutionaries failed in 1848, because they would not liberate Czechs and Poles (1850: 57 & 60).
- 184.
- 185.
- 186.
- 187.
Home to Daniel O’Connell, the leading contemporary Irish politician and not far from where this author grew up!
- 188.
- 189.
Hobsbawm (2005: 292 & 300).
- 190.
Curtis (1968: 27 & 31).
- 191.
Bollenbeck (1999: 302).
- 192.
- 193.
- 194.
- 195.
- 196.
Günther (1933: 66).
- 197.
- 198.
- 199.
- 200.
- 201.
- 202.
- 203.
- 204.
- 205.
- 206.
Chapman (1992: 124–25, 128–29 & 139).
- 207.
- 208.
Hutchinson (1987: 88).
- 209.
1992: 125–26.
- 210.
Manouelian (2000: 391).
- 211.
Figes (2002: 423–25).
- 212.
McDonald (1997: 229).
- 213.
- 214.
Chapman (1992: 131–32).
- 215.
McDonald (1997: 229).
- 216.
Ironically, these groups were often highly untypical of their nations’ peasant and worker masses.
- 217.
Chapman (1992: 124–33).
- 218.
Latvia’s Latgallians offer a counter-example however (Felder’s 2013:133).
- 219.
- 220.
- 221.
- 222.
- 223.
- 224.
1937: 221.
- 225.
Lutzhöft (1971: 18–19).
- 226.
- 227.
- 228.
Stojanowski (1930: 9).
- 229.
Jenkyns (1992: 31).
- 230.
- 231.
- 232.
Huxley (1870: 408–9), Montandon (1933: 258), Fischer (1936: 276 & 283), Ripley (1900: 123), and Eickstedt (1934: 401). In response, Balkan raciologsts, heavily influenced by German science, alternated between denouncing blond chauvinism and claiming their nations were strongly Nordic (Trubeta 2007: 131 & 135; see Chapter 7).
- 233.
- 234.
Neumann (1999: 74–79 & 100).
- 235.
Ujfalvy (1903: 27).
- 236.
Bollenbeck (1999: 292).
- 237.
- 238.
- 239.
- 240.
1877: 318.
- 241.
- 242.
1999: 68–72.
- 243.
- 244.
1850: 365–66.
- 245.
- 246.
Massin (1996: 102).
- 247.
- 248.
Wijworra (1996: 176).
- 249.
- 250.
- 251.
O’Grady (1878: 12).
- 252.
- 253.
Tornquist-Plewa (2002: 228).
- 254.
- 255.
- 256.
- 257.
Tornquist-Plewa (2002: 217–19).
- 258.
Figes (2002: 414 & 423–25).
- 259.
- 260.
Defeat by Japan exacerbated this in Russia (Figes 2002: 413–14).
- 261.
- 262.
Figes (2002: 365–69).
- 263.
- 264.
1932: 492.
- 265.
- 266.
- 267.
- 268.
- 269.
- 270.
1871: 3 & 6.
- 271.
Coon (1939: 280).
- 272.
- 273.
1871: 57, 75–82 & 101.
- 274.
- 275.
1872; 1873: 603.
- 276.
1872: 17, 31 & 34.
- 277.
- 278.
- 279.
- 280.
- 281.
- 282.
Collignon (1883: 504 & 525).
- 283.
- 284.
- 285.
- 286.
- 287.
- 288.
Czekanowski (1948: 19) and Houzé (1883: 88 & 96).
- 289.
1877: 253–54.
- 290.
- 291.
- 292.
- 293.
- 294.
- 295.
Hankins (1926: 155–56).
- 296.
Orsucci (1998: 3).
- 297.
Weisbach (1876: 8).
- 298.
- 299.
- 300.
- 301.
- 302.
- 303.
- 304.
- 305.
Mazumdar (1990: 194).
- 306.
As conservatives, Nordicists emphasised the roles of ‘great men’, claiming Italian Renaissance artists and even Jesus as Nordic (Woltmann 1903: 255 & 289; Günther 1933: 69; Eickstedt 1934: 356–7; Pogliano 2005: 418). Galton’s Hereditary Genius (1869) launched this scientific tradition of explaining historical figures through their breeding.
- 307.
- 308.
- 309.
- 310.
- 311.
- 312.
- 313.
- 314.
- 315.
Massin (1996: 129).
- 316.
Reche (1909: 227–231).
- 317.
- 318.
- 319.
Wijworra (1996: 167–68).
- 320.
- 321.
- 322.
- 323.
Day (1997: 109).
- 324.
- 325.
1998: 9.
- 326.
- 327.
- 328.
- 329.
- 330.
- 331.
- 332.
- 333.
Ripley (1900: 455).
- 334.
- 335.
- 336.
- 337.
Coon (1939: 286).
- 338.
- 339.
- 340.
- 341.
Kühl (1997: 73).
- 342.
Poliakov (1971: 85–87).
- 343.
- 344.
- 345.
- 346.
Ackermann (1970: 110, 121–22, 184–85 & 207–9).
- 347.
To justify brutality in the east, Nazi propaganda developed a crude, unscientific new race categorisation of Slavs as semi-human Untermenschen, which Ackermann traces to the American Lothrop Stoddard’s popular 1922 race tract, warning against ‘Underman’ (1970: 110 & 210–13).
- 348.
Ackermann (1970: 209 & 215–19).
- 349.
- 350.
- 351.
Kühl (1997: 43 & 66).
- 352.
Childe (1926: 168–70 & 179).
- 353.
- 354.
Montandon, as a young Swiss doctor, worked in a hospital train during Russia’s Civil War. After marrying a Bolshevik nurse, he was accused of betraying White Russian patients to the communists. Expelled from Switzerland, he became an anthropologist in France, and later the leading Vichy race scientist. The resistance assassinated him along with his wife (Pogliano 2005: 481–82).
- 355.
- 356.
- 357.
- 358.
- 359.
Malik (1996: 96).
- 360.
- 361.
Coon (1939: 285).
- 362.
- 363.
Pogliano (2005: 395–96).
- 364.
Evola (1941: 65–75 & 88).
- 365.
Lutzhöft (1971: 21–22).
- 366.
- 367.
Ackermann (1970: 207–8 & 226).
- 368.
Mosse (1978: 221).
- 369.
- 370.
- 371.
1970: 174.
- 372.
- 373.
- 374.
- 375.
Lutzhöft (1971: 22).
- 376.
- 377.
- 378.
Huxley and Haddon (1935: 26).
- 379.
- 380.
- 381.
- 382.
- 383.
Lutzhöft (1971: 87, 96 & 98).
- 384.
- 385.
Their unfortunate English name derived from the German province of Westphalia.
- 386.
- 387.
- 388.
- 389.
1933: 62–63.
- 390.
- 391.
1934: 379 & 387–89.
- 392.
Biasutti (1941: 576–77).
- 393.
- 394.
- 395.
- 396.
Niceforo (1993: 190–93).
- 397.
Poggio (1999: 87–94).
- 398.
Guidi (1996: 111–12).
- 399.
My database and Eickstedt’s canon confirm his international influence.
- 400.
- 401.
Quine (2013: 136–37).
- 402.
- 403.
- 404.
- 405.
- 406.
- 407.
- 408.
- 409.
- 410.
- 411.
Probably a reference to bull-fighting (1933: 61).
- 412.
- 413.
Montandon (1933: 237 & 239).
- 414.
- 415.
- 416.
- 417.
Schwidetzky (1935a: 93–94).
- 418.
- 419.
- 420.
- 421.
- 422.
Kemilainen (1994: 402–3).
- 423.
Eickstedt (1934: 365).
- 424.
- 425.
- 426.
McMahon (2009).
- 427.
Texts in bold type were used to compile the statistical database.
Bibliography
Texts in bold type were used to compile the statistical database.
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McMahon, R. (2016). European Race Classifications: Anthropology, Ethnicity and Politics. In: The Races of Europe. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-31846-6_4
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