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Consequences: Families in Opposition After 1917

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Family Networks and the Russian Revolutionary Movement, 1870–1940

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Abstract

The final chapter explores the ways in which the Bolshevik regime drew on its knowledge of the inter-relationship between family life and political opposition in order to target its socialist opponents effectively. As a matter of course, house searches and arrests included the family of the main target, prison regimes limited as much as possible contact with kin via correspondence and visits, and places of exile were chosen for their distance from railways, roads and waterways to ensure the isolation of political opponents from support networks. These efforts were only intensified as Stalin and his comrades turned their attention to perceived enemies within the Party itself.

Not one of my experiences with Nikolai Ivanovich [Bukharin], even the kind that I treasure forever in memory—the first kiss, the birth of a child, the fleeting excitements of youth—was ever the embodiment of pure, light-hearted joy. Invariably, our life together was burdened in unseen ways with the complex social climate of those years, the political discussions, debates, and dissensions, and finally the terror .

Anna Larina (Anna Larina, This I Cannot Forget: The Memoirs of Nikolai Bukharin’s Widow, introduction by Stephen F. Cohen, trans. by Gary Kern (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1994), p. 105).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Letter, F.I. Dan to P.B. Axelrod, 8 January 1918, Petrograd , in Dear Comrades: Menshevik Reports on the Bolshevik Revolution and the Civil War, ed. and trans. by Vladimir N. Brovkin (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1991), p. 59; Sarah Davies, ‘The Crime of “Anti-Soviet Agitation” in the Soviet Union in the 1930’s’, in Cahiers du Monde Russe, 1998, Vol. 39, No. 1/2, Les années 30: Nouvelles directions de larecherche, p. 149.

  2. 2.

    Bertram W. Maxwell, The Soviet State: A Study of Bolshevik Rule (Topeka, Kansas: Steves & Wayburn, 1934), pp. 225–227.

  3. 3.

    Maxwell, The Soviet State, p. 208.

  4. 4.

    E.H. Carr, ‘The Origin and Status of the Cheka’, in Soviet Studies, 1958, Vol. 10, No. 1, p. 3; Lutz Häfner, ‘The Assassination of Count Mirbach and the “July Uprising” of the Left Socialist Revolutionaries in Moscow, 1918’, in The Russian Review, 1991, Vol. 50, No. 3, p. 326; Alexander Barmine, One Who Survived, the Life Story of a Russian under the Soviets (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1945), p. 66; ‘Introduction’, in Abraham Ascher, ed., The Mensheviks in the Russian Revolution (London: Thames and Hudson, 1976), p. 32.

  5. 5.

    Maxwell, The Soviet State, p. 246.

  6. 6.

    Maxwell, The Soviet State, p. 247; Gennadii Bordyugov, ‘The Policy and Regime of Extraordinary Measures in Russia under Lenin and Stalin’, in Europe-Asia Studies, 1995, Vol. 47, No. 4, pp. 615–632, p. 618.

  7. 7.

    Vladimir N. Brovkin, The Mensheviks after October: Socialist Opposition and the Rise of the Bolshevik Dictatorship (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), p. 214; André Liebich, From the Other Shore: Russian Social Democracy after 1921 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997), p. 124; ‘Excerpts from letters’, in Letters from Russian Prisons: Consisting of Reprints of Documents by Political Prisoners in Soviet Prisons, Prison Camps and Exile, and Reprints of Affidavits Concerning Political Persecution in Soviet Russia, Official Statements by Soviet Authorities, Excerpts from Soviet Laws Pertaining to Civil Liberties, and Other Documents, with Introductory Letters by Twenty-Two Well Known European and American Authors, published for the International Committee for Political Prisoners (London: C.W. Daniel Co., 1925), p. 62; Oliver Henry Radkey, The Sickle under the Hammer: The Russian Socialist Revolutionaries in the Early Months of Soviet Rule (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), pp. 375–376; Letter, F.I. Dan to P.B. Axelrod, 8 January 1918, Petrograd , in Dear Comrades, p. 59.

  8. 8.

    Fedor Il’ich Dan, Two Years of Wandering: A Menshevik Leader in Lenin’s Russia, trans., ed., and introduced by Francis King (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 2016), p. 103; see also, N.B. Bogdanova, Men’shevik (St Petersburg : Nauchno-informatsionnyi tsentre ‘Memorial’, 1994), p. 75.

  9. 9.

    Vera Broido , Lenin and the Mensheviks: The Persecution of Socialists under Bolshevism (Aldershot: Gower/Maurice Temple Smith, 1987), p. 140 and p. 142.

  10. 10.

    Olga Chernov Andreyev, Cold Spring in Russia, trans. by Michael Carlisle (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1978), p. 185.

  11. 11.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 90.

  12. 12.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 60.

  13. 13.

    Iz pis’ma Iu.O. Martova S.D. Shchupaku, Berlin , 5 February 1921, in Politicheskie partii Rossii. Konets XIX – pervaia tret’ XX veka. Dokumental’noe nasledie. Men’sheviki v 1921–1922 gg., ed. by Z. Galinin and A. Nenarokov (Moskva: Rosspen, 2002), p. 101.

  14. 14.

    John D. Basil , The Mensheviks in the Revolution of 1917 (Columbus, Ohio: Slavica Publishers, Inc., 1984), p. 175.

  15. 15.

    Simon Wolin, ‘The Party’s Activities in Russia’, in Leopold H. Haimson, ed., The Mensheviks: From the Revolution of 1917 to the Second World War (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1974), p. 301.

  16. 16.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 131.

  17. 17.

    Liebich, From the Other Shore, p. 128.

  18. 18.

    Decree, Trotsky as Chairman of the Military Revolutionary Council, 13 October 1918, in Martin McCauley, ed., The Russian Revolution and the Soviet State 1917–1921. Documents. (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1975), p. 150; Alexopoulos , ‘Stalin and the Politics of Kinship’, p. 94.

  19. 19.

    A Moscovite, ‘Insurrectionary Movement (a letter from Moscow)’, June 1921, in Dear Comrades, p. 236.

  20. 20.

    Maxwell, The Soviet State, pp. 247–248.

  21. 21.

    Peter Holquist, ‘“Information Is the Alpha and Omega of Our Work”: Bolshevik Surveillance in Its Pan-European Context’, in The Journal of Modern History, 1997, Vol. 69, No. 3, p. 422.

  22. 22.

    Letter from a Comrade who left Russia at the Beginning of April 1919, in Dear Comrades, p. 165; ‘List of Arrests and Exile’, summer 1923, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 67; Vladimir N. Brovkin, ‘The Mensheviks Under Attack: The Transformation of Soviet Politics, June-September 1918’, in Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, Neue Folge, 1984, Vol. 32, No. 3, p. 384.

  23. 23.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 146.

  24. 24.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 149.

  25. 25.

    Brief reports from the provinces, June 1918 in Simbirsk, published in the Menshevik newspaper Iskra , 1918, No. 4, quoted in Dear Comrades, p. 93; Brovkin, ‘The Mensheviks Under Attack’, in Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, Neue Folge, 1984, Vol. 32, No. 3, p. 384.

  26. 26.

    Martov, ‘New Course in Soviet Russia (Letters from Russia)’, February 1919, in Dear Comrades, p. 141.

  27. 27.

    Bogdanova, Men’shevik, p. 107.

  28. 28.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 149; Letter from a Comrade who left Russia at the Beginning of April 1919, in Dear Comrades, p. 165.

  29. 29.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 144 and p. 142.

  30. 30.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 108.

  31. 31.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 130.

  32. 32.

    Victor Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 1901–1941, trans. and ed. by Peter Sedgwick (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 132; see, for example, ‘The Lock-Out, May 1922’, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 46.

  33. 33.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 143.

  34. 34.

    Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 216.

  35. 35.

    Grigorii Ratner quoted in Scott B. Smith, Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923 (Pittsburgh, Pa: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011), p. 251.

  36. 36.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 139; Andreyev, Cold Spring, pp. 167–168.

  37. 37.

    Wolin , ‘The Party’s Activities in Russia’, p. 301.

  38. 38.

    Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 165; See, for example, Letter, from ‘political exiles in Orenburg ’, received 1924, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 43.

  39. 39.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 60.

  40. 40.

    Liebich, From the Other Shore, pp. 127–128.

  41. 41.

    Dan, Two Years of Wandering, p. 170.

  42. 42.

    Sergius Gan, ‘Prison and Exile News to the End of 1924’, 31 December 1924, Prague, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 126.

  43. 43.

    Maxwell, The Soviet State, p. 247; Carr, ‘The Origin and Status of the Cheka’, p. 3.

  44. 44.

    Letter, Iu.O. Martov to A.N. Stein, 25 October 1918, in Dear Comrades, p. 124.

  45. 45.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 157.

  46. 46.

    Andreyev, Cold Spring, pp. 177–179.

  47. 47.

    Radkey, The Sickle under the Hammer, p. 381.

  48. 48.

    Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 103 and p. 108.

  49. 49.

    Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 103.

  50. 50.

    ‘Irina Sergevna Tidmarsh’, in Memories of Revolution: Russian Women Remember, Anna Horsburgh-Porter, ed., with interviews by Frances Welch and Elena Snow (London: Taylor and Frances e-Libary, 2001), pp. 66–67.

  51. 51.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 158.

  52. 52.

    Iz pis’ma Iu.O. Martova P.B. Aksel’rodu, 20 April 1921, Berlin , in Politicheskie partii, p. 208.

  53. 53.

    ‘The Working Class under the Bolshevik Dictatorship’, in Dear Comrades, p. 111; ‘Leningrad Jails (The Inner Prison of the GPU , known as the Gorokhovaia and the Shpalerka House of Preliminary Detention, and other prisons in Leningrad)’, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 88; ‘Excerpts from letters’, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 63.

  54. 54.

    ‘Protest by the Non-Partisan Political Red Cross ’, 1921, in Letters from Russian Prisons, pp. 224–225.

  55. 55.

    Aaron B. Retish , ‘Breaking Free from the Prison Walls: Penal Reforms and Prison Life in Revolutionary Russia’, in Historical Research, 2017, Vol. 90, No. 247, p. 149; Peter Abramovich Garvy-Bronstein, ‘A Menshevik in Exile’, 1923, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 56.

  56. 56.

    ‘Obrashchenie zagranichnoi delegatsii RSDRP po povodu repressii v Rossii. Ko vsem sotsialisticheskim partiiam i professional’nym organizatsiam’, Berlin 28 May 1921 in Politicheskie partii, p. 260.

  57. 57.

    Retish, ‘Breaking Free from the Prison Walls’, p. 149.

  58. 58.

    ‘Zaiavelenie S.O. Tsederbayma-Ezhova v TsK RKP(b)’, in Politicheskie partii, p. 275; Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 127.

  59. 59.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 126.

  60. 60.

    ‘An Appeal to the International Proletariat from a Prison in Tobolsk ’, 1925 in Dear Comrades, pp. 240–241.

  61. 61.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 156.

  62. 62.

    J. Bat’kovich, ‘From the Cheliabinsk Political Isolator’, 1924, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 133.

  63. 63.

    R. V. Ivanov-Razumnik, ‘Ezhov’s Regime’, in The Russian Review, 1951, Vol. 10, No. 4, p. 302.

  64. 64.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 159.

  65. 65.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 123.

  66. 66.

    A verst is the equivalent of 0.66 miles or 1.1 km.

  67. 67.

    ‘An Appeal to the International Proletariat from a Prison in Tobolsk ’, 1925 in Dear Comrades, pp. 240–241.

  68. 68.

    R. V. Ivanov-Razumnik, ‘After Twenty Years’, in The Russian Review, 1951, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 210–225, p. 210.

  69. 69.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 108–109.

  70. 70.

    Bogdanova, Men’shevik, p. 81 and p. 93.

  71. 71.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 109.

  72. 72.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 109.

  73. 73.

    Bogdanova, Men’shevik, p. 88.

  74. 74.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 164.

  75. 75.

    Liebich, From the Other Shore, p. 92.

  76. 76.

    ‘Zaiavelenie S.O. Tsederbayma-Ezhova v TsK RKP(b)’, Moscow, Butyrka Prison , 27 June 1921, in Politicheskie partii, p. 276.

  77. 77.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 156.

  78. 78.

    Marc Jansen, A Show Trial Under Lenin: The Trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries, Moscow 1922, trans. by Jean Sanders (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1982), p. 171.

  79. 79.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 128.

  80. 80.

    ‘The Shpalerka and its Hunger Strike’, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 91.

  81. 81.

    Jansen, A Show Trial Under Lenin, p. 171.

  82. 82.

    Sergius Gan , ‘Prison and Exile News to the End of 1924’, 31 December 1924, Prague, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 127 and pp. 124–125.

  83. 83.

    Dan, Two Years, pp. 123–124; Bogdanova, Men’shevik, p. 66.

  84. 84.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 134 and p. 170; see also ‘Experiences of Julia M. Zubelevich, Socialist-Revolutionary’, affidavit dated 1925, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 48.

  85. 85.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 148.

  86. 86.

    ‘Rules for Prisoners of the Inner Prison of the Vetcheka’, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 227.

  87. 87.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 164.

  88. 88.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 135; Liebich, From the Other Shore, pp. 92–93.

  89. 89.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 169.

  90. 90.

    Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 241.

  91. 91.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 175.

  92. 92.

    Peter Abramovich Garvy-Bronstein, ‘A Menshevik in Exile’, 1923, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 56; Israel Boruchovitz Idelson, ‘Experiences of Idelson, Zionist-Socialist’, 1924, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 57.

  93. 93.

    Letters from Russian Prisons, issued by the International Committee for Political Prisoners (London: The C.W. Daniel Company, 1925), p. 19; ‘Experiences of Julia M. Zubelevich, Socialist-Revolutionary’, affidavit dated 1925, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 50.

  94. 94.

    Letter, Boris Nikolaevich Butiagin to the GPU , Velikyi Ustiug, May 21, 1922, in Letters from Russian Prisons, pp. 46–47.

  95. 95.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 101; Letter, Boris Nikolaevich Butiagin to the GPU , Velikyi Ustiug, May 21, 1922, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 46; ‘Experiences of Julia M. Zubelevich, Socialist-Revolutionary’, affidavit dated 1925, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 50.

  96. 96.

    Letter, N., Narym, 1924, published in Sotsialisticheskii vestnik (Socialist Courier) on 17 April 1924, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 25; Letter, from ‘political exiles in Orenburg ’, received 1924, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 42.

  97. 97.

    ‘An Appeal to the International Proletariat from a Prison in Tobolsk ’, 1925 in Dear Comrades, p. 239.

  98. 98.

    ‘An Appeal to the International Proletariat from a Prison in Tobolsk’, 1925 in Dear Comrades, p. 239.

  99. 99.

    Jansen, A Show Trial Under Lenin, pp. 173–174.

  100. 100.

    Jansen, A Show Trial Under Lenin, p. 182.

  101. 101.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 132.

  102. 102.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 101; Peter Abramovich Garvy-Bronstein, ‘A Menshevik in Exile’, 1923, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 57.

  103. 103.

    See, for example, Letter, G.U., October 1924 in Ch., in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 65; Jansen, A Show Trial Under Lenin, picture page opp p. 1.

  104. 104.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 135.

  105. 105.

    ‘Excerpts from letters’, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 62.

  106. 106.

    E.L. Olitskaia , Moi vospominaniia, 2 Vols. (Moscow: Posev, 1971), Vol. 2, at http://www.sakharov-center.ru/asfcd/auth/?t=book&num=1822.

  107. 107.

    A. Kaplan, R. Bogorad, M. Bogorad, I. Bogorad, F. Lyssov, A. Rozhkov, S. Deitch, D. Liberova, V. Besrutchko, ‘A Bolshevist Celebration’, 12 April 1923, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 35.

  108. 108.

    Letter, G.A., October 1923, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 66.

  109. 109.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 132.

  110. 110.

    Stuart Finkel, ‘Purging the Public Intellectual: The 1922 Expulsions from Soviet Russia’ in Russian Review, 2003, Vol. 62, No. 4, p. 602 and p. 603.

  111. 111.

    See, for example, Letter from Lenin to Stalin, 17 July 1922, in Richard Pipes, The Unknown Lenin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 168.

  112. 112.

    Finkel, ‘Purging the Public Intellectual’, p. 601.

  113. 113.

    Dan, Two Years, p. 187.

  114. 114.

    Liebich, From the Other Shore, p. 94; Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 140.

  115. 115.

    Smith, Captives of Revolution, p. 257.

  116. 116.

    Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 17 and p. 43.

  117. 117.

    ‘An Appeal to the International Proletariat from a Prison in Tobolsk ’, 1925 in Dear Comrades, p. 241 and p. 244.

  118. 118.

    André Liebich , ‘At Home Abroad: The Mensheviks in the Second Emigration’, in Canadian Slavonic Papers/Revue Canadienne des Slavistes, 1995, Vol. 37, No. 1/2, pp. 1–13, p. 3; Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 51; see also, Dan, Two Years, p. 55 and p. 74.

  119. 119.

    Svetlana Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters to a Friend, trans. by Priscilla Johnson (London: World Books, 1968), p. 96.

  120. 120.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 51; see also, Dan, Two Years, p. 74.

  121. 121.

    Liebich, From the Other Shore, p. 76.

  122. 122.

    Letter, Lenin to the Moscow Gubernia Commission for Checking and Purging the Party, in Lenin’s Collected Works, 45 Vols. (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977), Vol. 45, pp. 397–400 at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/dec/03c.htm, last accessed 8 June 2017.

  123. 123.

    Kotkin , Stalin, p. 399.

  124. 124.

    Liebich, From the Other Shore, p. 91; see also Serge, Memoirs, p. 129.

  125. 125.

    Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 99; Radkey, The Sickle under the Hammer, p. 415. While Radkey doubts an attack was planned, he believes the assertion that a friend might have sought to warn Chernov of a perceived danger (Radkey, The Sickle under the Hammer, p. 415).

  126. 126.

    Broido, Lenin and the Mensheviks, p. 104.

  127. 127.

    Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 229.

  128. 128.

    Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 235.

  129. 129.

    Smith, Captives of Revolution, p. 236.

  130. 130.

    Barbara C. Allen, Alexander Shlyapnikov, 1885–1937: Life of an Old Bolshevik (Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books, 2015), pp. 186–187.

  131. 131.

    Youngok Kang-Bohr, ‘Appeals and Complaints: Popular Reactions to the Party Purges and the Great Terror in the Voronezh Region, 1935–1939’, in Europe-Asia Studies, 2005, Vol. 57, No. 1, p. 135.

  132. 132.

    Kang-Bohr, ‘Appeals and Complaints’, p. 135; Kevin McDermott, ‘Stalinist Terror in the Comintern : New Perspectives’, in Journal of Contemporary History, 1995, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 112–113.

  133. 133.

    William Reswick , I Dreamt Revolution (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1952), p. 177; Allen, Alexander Shlyapnikov, pp. 183 and p. 313.

  134. 134.

    Shliapnikov, for example, faced just such a fate as Barbara Allenn has demonstrated in her biography of the Old Bolshevik. (Allen, Alexander Shlyapnikov, chapters 10 and 11).

  135. 135.

    G. Miasnikov, ‘From a Communist’, 1924, in Letters from Russian Prisons, p. 85.

  136. 136.

    Orlando Figes , The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin’s Russia (London: Allen Lane, 2007), pp. 136–137; Geoffrey Hosking, ‘Trust and Distrust in the USSR: An Overview’, in The Slavonic and East European Review, 2013, Vol. 91, No. 1, pp. 1–25, p. 10; McDermott, ‘Stalinist Terror’, p. 115; Davies, ‘The Crime of “Anti-Soviet Agitation”’, p. 150.

  137. 137.

    Priestland, Stalinism and the Politics of Mobilization: Ideas, Power and Terror in Inter-war Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 259.

  138. 138.

    Stephen Kotkin , Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928 (London: Penguin, 2015), p. 432; Gerald M. Easter, ‘Personal Networks and Postrevolutionary State Building: Soviet Russia Reexamined’, in World Politics, 1996, Vol. 48, No. 4, p. 573; James Harris, ‘Resisting the Plan in the Urals, 1928–1956, or Why Regional Officials Needed “Wreckers ” and “Saboteurs”’, in Contending with Stalinism: Soviet Power and Popular Resistance in the 1930s, ed. by Lynne Viola (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2002), p. 204 and p. 221; Cynthia Hooper , ‘Trust in Terror? The Search for a Foolproof Science of Soviet Personnel’ in The Slavonic and East European Review, 2013, Vol. 91, No. 1, Trust and Distrust in the USSR, pp. 26–56, p. 27.

  139. 139.

    Cynthia Hooper, ‘Trust in Terror? The Search for a Foolproof Science of Soviet Personnel’ in The Slavonic and East European Review, 2013, Vol. 91, No. 1, Trust and Distrust in the USSR, p. 27.

  140. 140.

    Wendy Goldman, ‘Stalinist Terror and Democracy: The 1937 Union Campaign’, in The American Historical Review, 2005, Vol. 110, No. 5, p. 1434.

  141. 141.

    Fitzpatrick , On Stalin’s Team, p. 39.

  142. 142.

    Fitzpatrick , On Stalin’s Team, p. 39 and pp. 97–98; Liebich, From the Other Shore, p. 382.

  143. 143.

    Liebich, From the Other Shore, p. 382.

  144. 144.

    Kaganovich, quoted in Sheila Fitzpatrick , On Stalin’s Team. The Years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 115.

  145. 145.

    Stalin, quoted in Alexopoulos , ‘Stalin and the Politics of Kinship’, p. 91.

  146. 146.

    J. Arch Getty , Gábor T. Rittersporn and Viktor N. Zemskov, ‘Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence’, in The American Historical Review, 1993, Vol. 98, No. 4, p. 1033.

  147. 147.

    Lynne Viola, ‘The Question of the Perpetrator in Soviet History’, in Slavic Review, 2013, Vol. 72, No. 1, pp. 16–17.

  148. 148.

    Alexopoulos , ‘Stalin and the Politics of Kinship’, p. 99.

  149. 149.

    Alexopoulos , ‘Stalin and the Politics of Kinship’, p. 105.

  150. 150.

    Robert C. Tucker , Stalin in Power: The Revolution From Above (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1992), pp. 485–486.

  151. 151.

    Corinna Corinna , ‘Children of “Enemies of the People” as Victims of the Great Purges ’, in Cahiers du Monde Russe, 1998, Vol. 39, No. 1/2, Les années 30: Nouvelles directions de larecherche, p. 213.

  152. 152.

    Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, conversations with Felix Chuev, ed. and with an introduction by Albert Resis, (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1993), pp. 277–278.

  153. 153.

    Kuhr, ‘Children of “Enemies of the People”’, p. 213.

  154. 154.

    Molotov Remembers, p. 224; see also Aino Kuusinen, Before and After Stalin: A Personal Account of Soviet Russia from the 1920s to the 1960s, trans. by Paul Stevenson, foreword by Wolfgang Leonhard (London: Michael Joseph, 1974), pp. 48–49.

  155. 155.

    Dinko Tomasic, Interrelations Between Bolshevik Ideology and the Structure of Soviet Society, in American Sociological Review, 1951, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 146; Hosking, ‘Trust and Distrust in the USSR’, pp. 8–9; Volkogonov, Stalin, p. 181.

  156. 156.

    Larina, This I Cannot Forget, p. 118.

  157. 157.

    Robert C. Tucker , ‘On the “Letter of an Old Bolshevik” as an Historical Document’, in Slavic Review, 1992, Vol. 51, No. 4, p. 784.

  158. 158.

    Orlando Figes , The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin’s Russia (London: Allen Lane, 2007), p. xxxi; Beria, Sergo, Beria, My Father: Inside Stalin’s Kremlin , ed. by Françoise Thom, trans. by Brian Pearce (London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd, 2001), p. 34; Hosking, ‘Trust and Distrust in the USSR’, pp. 14–15.

  159. 159.

    Beria, Beria, pp. 279–280.

  160. 160.

    Larina, This I Cannot Forget, p. 84; Orlando Figes , The Whisperers, p. 264; Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters, p. 135.

  161. 161.

    Miklós Kun, Stalin: An Unknown Portrait (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2003), p. 273.

  162. 162.

    Kun, Stalin, pp. 254–255.

  163. 163.

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    Katy Turton

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Turton, K. (2018). Consequences: Families in Opposition After 1917. In: Family Networks and the Russian Revolutionary Movement, 1870–1940. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-0-230-39308-0_6

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