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Consequences: The Bolsheviks After 1917

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Family Networks and the Russian Revolutionary Movement, 1870–1940

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Abstract

This chapter will show that after the Bolshevik revolution, family ties were central to the building of the new government and regime, with Party loyalty judged based on an individual’s own contribution to the revolutionary movement as well as his family connections. Socializing remained firmly based on the kinship ties of the underground. However, increasingly the Party grew suspicious of family ties and tried to reduce their influence, first by stressing fraternal solidarity between Party comrades and then by promoting a patriarchal family structure with Stalin at its head.

Those of us who belong to the older generation […] are still influenced up to 90 per cent by the baggage which we acquired during the underground years.

Sergei Mironovich Kirov, 1934. (S.M. Kirov, ‘Speech to the plenum of 10 October 1934 of the Leningrad obkom and gorkom of the VKP(b), quoted in John Biggart, ‘Kirov before the Revolution’, in Soviet Studies, 1972, Vol. 23, No. 3, p. 372.)

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Notes

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    T.H. Rigby, Lenin’s Government: Sovnarkom, 1917–1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Robert C. Tucker , Stalin in Power: The Revolution From Above (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1992); Lara Cook , ‘Collegiality in the People’s Commissariats, 1917–1920’, in Revolutionary Russia, 2013, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp 1–31.

  2. 2.

    Gerald M. Easter, ‘Personal Networks and Postrevolutionary State Building: Soviet Russia Reexamined’, in World Politics, 1996, Vol. 48, No. 4, p. 560.

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    Barbara Evans Clements , Bolshevik Women (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 160–161.

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    N.B. Bogdanova, Men’shevik (St Petersburg : Nauchno-informatsionnyi tsentre ‘Memorial’, 1994), p. 5; Marc Slonim, ‘Reminiscences of the Revolution’, in Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, 1977, Vol. 18, No. 4, p. 423.

  6. 6.

    Olga Chernov Andreyev, Cold Spring in Russia, trans. by Michael Carlisle (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1978), p. 74–76.

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    Vera Broido , Daughter of Revolution: A Russian Girlhood Remembered (London: Constable, 1998), p. 82.

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  10. 10.

    Sukhanov, The Russian Revolution, p. 92.

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    Leon Trotsky, My Life: The Rise and Fall of a Dictator (London: Thornton Butterworth, Limited, 1930), p. 340.

  12. 12.

    Krupskaia quoted in Mary Hamilton-Dann, Vladimir and Nadya (New York: International Publishers, 1998), p. 199.

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    Michael David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment: Cultural Diplomacy and Western Visitors to the Soviet Union, 1921–1941 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 35.

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    Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics , conversations with Felix Chuev, ed. and with an introduction by Albert Resis (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1993), p. 102.

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    Konrad Kellen, Khrushchev: A Political Portrait (New York: Frederick A. Praegar, 1961), p. 12; Rigby, ‘The Soviet Political Elite’, p. 422.

  18. 18.

    Rigby, ‘The Soviet Political Elite’, p. 419.

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    Letter, Lenin to V.A. Avanesov, 1 June 1921, in Lenin’s Collected Works, 45 Vols. (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977) Vol. 35, p. 504, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/jun/01vaa.htm, last accessed 10 May 2017.

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    Adam B. Ulam, The Bolsheviks: The Intellectual and Political History of the Triumph of Communism in Russia (London: Collier-Macmillan Co., 1965), p. 526; Rigby, Lenin’s Government: Sovnarkom , 1917–1922 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), p. 125.

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    Sheila Fitzpatrick , The Commissariat of Enlightenment : Soviet organization of education and the arts under Lunacharsky, October 1917–1921 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. 19.

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    Katy Turton, Forgotten Lives: The Role of Lenin’s Sisters in the Russian Revolution, 1864–1937 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), p. 84.

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    Stephen Kotkin , Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928 (London: Penguin, 2015), p. 46.

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    Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (London: Phoenix, 2004), p. 259.

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    V.I. Lenin, Note on N.N. Iakovlev’s letter and memo to I.S. Unschlict, 23 August 1921’, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, p. 267, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/aug/23e.htm, last accessed 10 May 2017.

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    Letter, Lenin to P.A. Zalutsky and A.A. Solts, dictated by telephone on 20 December 1921, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, pp 414–415, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/dec/20.htm, last accessed 10 May 2017.

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    Letter, Nikolai Egorovich Egorov-Kirilov to the Bureau of the Society of Old Bolsheviks , 24 June 1924 in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 628, l. 15.

  30. 30.

    Letter, Society of Old Bolsheviks to Kostroma , Gubkom, 24 June 1924, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 628, l. 16; Letter, Kostroma Gubkom to the Society of Old Bolsheviks , 1 July 1924, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 628, l. 19.

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    Anna Larina, This I Cannot Forget: The Memoirs of Nikolai Bukharin’s Widow, introduction by Stephen F. Cohen, trans. by Gary Kern (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1994), p. 63.

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    Larina, This I Cannot Forget, p. 105.

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    Svetlana Alliluyeva, Only One Year, trans. Paul Chavchavadze (Hutchinson of London: 1969), p. 347.

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    Ol’ga Evgen’evna Allilueva, ‘Avtobiografiia’, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 40, l. 14.

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    Letter, Lenin to Ia. A. Preobrazhenskii , 27 March 1921, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, pp. 106–107, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/mar/27d.htm, last accessed 10 May 2017; Gilbert Faccarello and Masashi Izumo, eds., The Reception of David Ricardo (London: Routledge, 2014), p. 209; Naum Jasny, Soviet Economists of the Twenties: Names to be Remembered (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), p. 4.

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    Sukhanov, The Russian Revolution, p. 419.

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    E.A. Rees, Iron Lazar: A Political Biography of Lazar Kaganovich (London: Anthem Press, 2012), p. 3 and p. 6.

  38. 38.

    Aino Kuusinen, Before and After Stalin: A Personal Account of Soviet Russia from the 1920s to the 1960s, trans. by Paul Stevenson, foreword by Wolfgang Leonhard (London: Michael Joseph, 1974), pp. 18–20. While doubt has been cast over the reliability of Kuusinen’s memoir, Peter Day offers a robust defence of the accuracy of her account (Peter Day, ‘Love in a Cold War Climate’, The National Interest, 1995, No. 40, pp. 61–69).

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    Kotkin , Stalin, p. 301; Miklós Kun, Stalin: An Unknown Portrait (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2003), p. 212.

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    Letter, Lenin to the Nizhni-Novgorod Gubernia Executive Committee, 8 July 1919, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 44, p. 261, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1919/jul/08.htm, last accessed on 11 May 2017; letter, Lenin to A.D. Tsyurupa and A.I. Rykov, 2 May 1922, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, p. 538, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/may/02d.htm, last accessed on 11 May 2017; see also Turton, Forgotten Lives, p. 91 and p. 95.

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    Kuusinen, Before and After Stalin, pp. 34–35; Marc Jansen, A Show Trial Under Lenin: The Trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries, Moscow 1922, trans. by Jean Sanders (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1982), p. 47; Donald Rayfield, Stalin and his Hangmen: An Authoritative Portrait of a Tyrant and Those who Served Him (London: Penguin, 2005), Kindle edition, location 5389 out of 11603, in Chap. 7.

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    Kun, Stalin, p. 376.

  44. 44.

    Letter, Lenin to the Orgbureau of the Central Committee, RKP(b) and the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic, 16 June 1919, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 44, p. 254, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1919/jun/16d.htm, last accessed 10 May 2017.

  45. 45.

    Larina, This I Cannot Forget, p. 212.

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    Kuusinen, Before and After Stalin, p. 34.

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    Kuusinen, Before and After Stalin, pp. 34–35.

  48. 48.

    Decree, Trotsky, ‘To the Peasants and Workers in Kazan Guberniia’, 27 August 1918, in Martin McCauley, ed., The Russian Revolution and the Soviet State 1917–1921. Documents. (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1975), p. 150.

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    Donald J. Raleigh, ‘Languages of Power: How the Saratov Bolsheviks Imagined Their Enemies’, in Slavic Review, 1998, Vol. 57, No. 2, p. 343; Fedor Il’ich Dan , Two Years of Wandering: A Menshevik Leader in Lenin’s Russia, trans., ed., and introduced by Francis King (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 2016), p. 103 and p. 86.

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    Letter, Lenin to A.Y. Badaev, 16 May 1920, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 44, pp 375–376, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1920/may/16.htm, last accessed 10 May 2017.

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    Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 35, p. 333, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1918/may/23vdbb.htm, last accessed 10 May 2017; John Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World (New York: Modern Library, 1935) p. 359.

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    Anna Louise Strong, The First Time in History: Two Years of Russia’s New Life (August, 1921, to December, 1923) (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1924), pp. 56–57.

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    Letter, Lenin to L.B. Krasin, 4 October 1922, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, p. 573, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/04.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017; Letter, Lenin to N.P. Gorbunov, 26 January 1921, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, p. 75, https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/jan/26c.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017; Letter, Lenin to I.I. Khodorovsky, 6 April 1920, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 44, p. 366, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1920/apr/06.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017; Letter, Lenin to Comrades Stomoniakov, Lutovinov, Krasin, Vorovskii, Kerzhentsev, Lomonosov, Litvinov, and others, 19 November 1921, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, p. 379, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/nov/19b.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017; Letter, Lenin to the Administration of Health Resorts and Sanatoria of the Caucasus, 17 August 1920, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 44, p. 417, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1920/aug/17.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017 and letter, Lenin to Theodore Rothstein, 13 August 1921, Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, pp. 254–255, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/aug/13d.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017.

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    Letter, Lenin to the Presidium of the All-Russia Central Executive Committee, 15 May 1919, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 44, p. 230, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1919/may/15c.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017. Lenin’s emphasis.

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    Letter, Lenin to V.M. Molotov for the RCP(B) CC Secretariat, 17 January 1922, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, pp 439–440, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/jan/17b.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017.

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    Letter, Lenin to P.M. Kerzhentsev, 13 April 1922, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, p. 530, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/apr/13.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017; Letter, Lenin to Karl Radek , March, written not earlier than 23 March 1920, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 44, p. 360, https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1920/mar/23.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017; Letter, Lenin to the People’s Commissariat for Agriculture and the People’s Commissariat for Food, 22 June 1920, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 44, pp. 390–391, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1920/jun/22b.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017.

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    Letter, Lenin to V.M. Molotov for the RCP(B) CC Secretariat, 11 June 1921, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, pp 184–185, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/jun/11.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017. See also letter, Lenin to N.A. Semashko, 25 September 1920, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 44, p. 436, https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1920/sep/25c.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017; Letter, Lenin to M.I. Kalinin, 16 September 1920, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 44, p. 432, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1920/sep/16.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017; Letter, Lenin to L.B. Kamenev, dictated by telephone on 1 January 1922, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, p. 425, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/jan/01.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017; Telegram, V.I. Lenin to M.Kh. Poliakov, 6 December 1921, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, p. 404, https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/dec/06c.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017; Letter, Lenin to V.M. Molotov for the RCP(B) CC Secretariat, 17 January 1922, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, pp 439–440, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/jan/17b.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017.

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    Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters, p. 250.

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    Larina, This I Cannot Forget, pp. 218–219.

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    See for example, letter, N.I. Bukharin to D.B. Riazanov, 20 July 1922, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 28, l. 1; Easter, ‘Personal Networks’, pp. 567–568.

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    Kotkin , Stalin, p. 453 and p. 816.

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    Ol’ga Pavlovna Nogina , ‘Zaiavlenie’, 1930, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 1401, l. 13.

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    Letter, Vladimir Dmitrievich Bonch-Bruevch to Society of Old Bolsheviks , 15 June 1934, in RGASP, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 237, l. 30. See also letter, Avgusta Iakovlevna Degtiareva-Boksberg (Zonta) to Society of Old Bolsheviks , 6 June 1930, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 572, l. 8.

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    Letter, Lenin to Sklyansky, 9 April 1921, in McCauley, The Russian Revolution, p. 197. Lenin’s emphasis.

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    Molotov Remembers, p. 145.

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    Beria, Sergo, Beria, My Father: Inside Stalin’s Kremlin , ed. by Françoise Thom, trans. by Brian Pearce (London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd, 2001), pp. 159–160.

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    Cook, ‘Collegiality in the People’s Commissariats’, p. 12; Foonote, Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 44, p. 200, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1919/mar/04.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017.

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    Cook, ‘Collegiality in the People’s Commissariats’, p. 12.

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    Cook, ‘Collegiality in the People’s Commissariats’, p. 13; Barbara C. Allen, Alexander Shlyapnikov, 1885–1937: Life of an Old Bolshevik (Chicago, IL.: Haymarket Books, 2015), p. 119.

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    Bertram W. Maxwell, The Soviet State: A Study of Bolshevik Rule (Topeka, Kansas: Steves & Wayburn, 1934), p. 134 and p. 351.

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    Cook, ‘Collegiality in the People’s Commissariats’, p. 17.

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    Arthur Ransome, Russia in 1919 (New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1919), p. 19; Andreyev, Cold Spring, p. 236; Elizaveta Drabkina , V vosemnadtsatom godu. Rasskazy. (Moscow: Pravda, 1960), p. 5; Kotkin , Stalin, p. 595.

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    Sheila Fitzpatrick , On Stalin’s Team The Years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 29; Larina, This I Cannot Forget, p. 140. Bukharin had a second wife too, Esfir Isaevna Gurvich , also from the 1920s and a daughter with her, Svetlana or Kozechka.

  91. 91.

    Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters, p. 238.

  92. 92.

    Oleg V. Khlevniuk, In Stalin’s Shadow: The Career of ‘Sergo’ Ordzhonikidze, ed. By Donald J. Raleigh and Kathy S. Transchel, trans. by David J. Norlander (Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1995), p. 64; Roy Medvedev, ‘The Murder of Bukharin’, in Zhores A. Medvedev and Roy A. Medvedev, The Unknown Stalin, trans. by Ellen Dahrendorf (London: I.B. Tauris, 2003), p. 264; Sebag Montefiore, Stalin, pp. 74–75.

  93. 93.

    Kotkin , Stalin, p. 467; Fitzpatrick , On Stalin’s Team, pp. 66–67.

  94. 94.

    Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters, pp. 26–27.

  95. 95.

    Larina, This I Cannot Forget, p. 188.

  96. 96.

    Beria, Beria, pp. 4–5.

  97. 97.

    Larina, This I Cannot Forget, p. 220.

  98. 98.

    Molotov Remembers, p. 92, p. 95 and p. 98.

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    Boterbloem, The Life and Times of Andrei Zhdanov, p. 20.

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    Golfo Alexopoulos , ‘Stalin and the Politics of Kinship: Practices of Collective Punishment, 1920s–1940s’, in Comparative Studies in Society and History, 2008, Vol. 50, No. 1, p. 97.

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    Montefiore, Stalin, p. 10.

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    S.M. Budënnyi, Proidënnyi put’ (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1965), Vol. 2, p. 168.

  104. 104.

    Zinaida Pavlovna Krzhizhanovskaia-Nevzorova, membership questionnaire, in RGASPI, f. 124, o. 1, ed. khr. 980, l. 1.

  105. 105.

    ‘Pamiati M.P. Timofeevoi-Reingol’dts’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1924, No. 5, p. 12.

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    Kotkin , Stalin, pp. 467–468.

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    Letter, Lenin to P.A. Zalutsky and A.A. Solts, dictated by telephone on 20 December 1921, in Lenin’s Collected Works, Vol. 45, pp 413–414, at https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/dec/20.htm, last accessed 11 May 2017.

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    Kotkin , Stalin, pp. 467–468.

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    Kuusinen, Before and After Stalin, pp. 103–104.

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    Alliluyeva, Only One Year, p. 387; see also Beria, Beria, p. 17.

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    Beria, Beria, p. 6.

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    David Priestland, Stalinism and the Politics of Mobilization: Ideas, Power and Terror in Inter-war Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 291; Dinko Tomasic, ‘Interrelations Between Bolshevik Ideology and the Structure of Soviet Society’, in American Sociological Review, 1951, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 145; Alexopoulos , ‘Stalin and the Politics of Kinship’, pp. 97–98.

  115. 115.

    Orlando Figes, The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin’s Russia (London: Allen Lane, 2007), p. 11.

  116. 116.

    Figes, The Whisperers, p. 11; Paul Scheffer, ‘Stalin’s Power’, in Foreign Affairs, 1930, Vol. 8, No. 4, p. 132; Sebag Montefiore, Stalin, p. 177.

  117. 117.

    Fitzpatrick , On Stalin’s Team, pp. 27–28; Stephen F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography, 1883–1938 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980); Beria, Beria, p. 27; Sebag Montefiore, Stalin, p. 519.

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    Figes, The Whisperers, pp. 1–2.

  119. 119.

    Figes, The Whisperers, p. 11; Kotkin , Stalin, pp. 594–595; E. Preobrazhenskii , ‘Evgeniia Bogdanovna Bosh ’, in Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 1925, No. 2, p. 13.

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    Priestland, Stalinism, p. 291. Catriona Kelly, ‘Riding the Magic Carpet: Children and Leader Cult in the Stalin Era’, in The Slavic and East European Journal, 2005, Vol. 49, No. 2, Special Forum Issue: Russian Children’s Literature: Changing Paradigms, p. 219; Tomasic, ‘Interrelations’, p. 145; Alexopoulos , ‘Stalin and the Politics of Kinship’, pp. 97–98; Robert W. Thurston, ‘The Soviet Family during the Great Terror, 1935–1941’, in Soviet Studies, 1991, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 557–559; Cynthia Hooper , ‘Trust in Terror? The Search for a Foolproof Science of Soviet Personnel’ in The Slavonic and East European Review, 2013, Vol. 91, No. 1, Trust and Distrust in the USSR, p. 28.

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    Figes, The Whisperers, p. 160; Jochen Hellbeck, ‘Working, Struggling, Becoming: Stalin-Era Autobiographical Texts’, in The Russian Review, 2001, Vol. 60, No. 3 (Jul., 2001), pp. 340–359.

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    Katy Turton

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Turton, K. (2018). Consequences: The Bolsheviks After 1917. In: Family Networks and the Russian Revolutionary Movement, 1870–1940. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-0-230-39308-0_5

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