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Exhuming the City: The Politics and Poetics of Graveyard Clearance

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Victorian Environments

Abstract

As sanitary discourses in the 1830s and 1840s pushed urban burial grounds and cemeteries ex urbis, the Victorians confronted an environmental shift of catastrophic proportions: corpses were exhumed to facilitate their removal to suburban cemeteries. The association of the dead with pestilence, disease and the "abject" reveals a profound shift in the apprehension of the dead, transferring the aegis of burial from the Church, to a more secular realm. This essay explores how the Victorians reconciled these utilitarian methods of treating the dead with the psychological trauma of death itself. The transfer of graveyards away from churches replaced traditional notions of a Christian afterlife with a Derridean "revenance" that lingered in the interstices of life and death in a perennial haunting of the Victorian imagination.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Simon Bradley , St Pancras Station (London: Profile, 2007), 6.

  2. 2.

    Thomas Hardy, “In the Cemetery,” in The Collected Poems of Thomas Hardy, ed. Michael Irwin, 393–94 (Ware, UK: Wordsworth, 1994); Thomas Hardy, “The Levelled Churchyard,” in The Collected Poems of Thomas Hardy, ed. Michael Irwin, 144–45 (Ware, UK: Wordsworth, 1994).

  3. 3.

    Michel Foucault , “Of Other Spaces (Translated by Jay Miskowiec),” Diacritics 17 (1997): 25.

  4. 4.

    James Stevens Curl, The Victorian Celebration of Death (Stroud, UK: Sutton, 2000), xx.

  5. 5.

    Mary Douglas , Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concept of Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge, 2002), 121.

  6. 6.

    Miasmatic theory referred to the idea in the mid-nineteenth century that pollutants in the air, or “bad air,” from decaying matter was the source of major diseases and epidemics. This idea was later debunked by the germ theory, discovered by German physician Robert Koch and supported by Dr John Snow. See Robert Koch, “The Etiology of Cholera,” in Recent Essays by Various Authors on Bacteria in Relation to Disease, trans. George Lockwood Laycock, ed. W. Watson Cheyne (London: New Syndenham Society, 1888), 327–69.

  7. 7.

    For more on “Graveyard Poets,” see Eric Parisot, Graveyard Poetry: Religion, Aesthetics and the Mid-Eighteenth-Century Poetic Condition (Farnham: Ashgate, 2013), 51–74.

  8. 8.

    Alfred Tennyson , “In Memoriam ,” in Tennyson: A Selected Edition, ed. Christopher Ricks, 331–484 (London: Routledge, 2014), 13–20.

  9. 9.

    George Alfred Walker , Gatherings from Graveyards (London: Longman, 1839), 150.

  10. 10.

    Henry Thompson , Cremation: The Treatment of the Body after Death (London: Smith, Elder, 1884), 20.

  11. 11.

    Edwin Chadwick , A Supplementary Report on the Practice of Interment (London: W. Clowes and Sons, 1843), 31.

  12. 12.

    Chris Brooks , Mortal Remains: The History and Present State of the Victorian and Edwardian Cemetery (Devon, UK: Wheaton, 1989), 39.

  13. 13.

    Alan Shelston, “Dickens and the Burial of the Dead,” in Babylon or New Jerusalem? Perceptions of the City in Literature, ed. Valeria Tinkler-Villani, 77–92 (Amsterdam: Roldopi, 2005), 82.

  14. 14.

    Quoted in James Stevens Curl, The Victorian Celebration of Death (Stroud, UK: Sutton, 2000), 69, emphasis in original.

  15. 15.

    John Ruskin , “Fiction—Fair and Foul,” in The Victorian Art of Fiction: Nineteenth-Century Essays on the Novel, ed. Rohan Maitzen, 297–308 (Peterborough: Broadview Press, [1880] 2009), 301.

  16. 16.

    Jacques Derrida , Spectres of Marx: State of the Debt, the Work of Mourning, and the New International, trans. Peggy Kamuf (New York: Routledge, 1994), 154.

  17. 17.

    Ruskin , “Fiction—Fair and Foul,” 10.

  18. 18.

    Norman Page , Introduction to The Old Curiosity Shop, by Charles Dickens, xi–xxxviii (London: Penguin, 2000), xv.

  19. 19.

    Charles Dickens, The Old Curiosity Shop (London: Penguin, [1841] 2000), 13.

  20. 20.

    Dickens, The Old Curiosity Shop (emphasis added).

  21. 21.

    Samuel Weber , Mass Mediauras: Form, Technics, Media (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), 144 (emphasis in original).

  22. 22.

    Dickens, The Old Curiosity Shop, 136.

  23. 23.

    Dickens, The Old Curiosity Shop, 100.

  24. 24.

    Emily Brontë , Wuthering Heights (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, [1847] 1965), 55.

  25. 25.

    See Sigmund Freud , “Mourning and Melancholia,” in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, ed. and trans. James Strachey, 237–58 (London: Hogarth, 1957), 253.

  26. 26.

    Brontë , Wuthering Heights , 165.

  27. 27.

    Bram Stoker , Dracula (London: Penguin, [1897] 2003), 188.

  28. 28.

    Stoker , Dracula, 224–25.

  29. 29.

    Stoker , Dracula, 225, 228.

  30. 30.

    Stoker , Dracula, 232.

  31. 31.

    Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Fall of the House of the Usher,” “The Cask of Amontillado” and “The Premature Burial” all dealt with live burials that contributed to this taphophobia.

  32. 32.

    Joanna Bourke , Fear: A Cultural History (Emeryville, CA: Shoemaker and Hoarde, 2006), 29.

  33. 33.

    Ruth Richardson , Death, Dissection, and the Destitute (London: Penguin, 1988), 279.

  34. 34.

    Robert Louis Stevenson , “The Body Snatcher,” in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and Other Tales of Terror, ed. Robert Mighall, 71–92 (London: Penguin, [1884] 2003), 83.

  35. 35.

    Stevenson , “The Body Snatcher,” 81.

  36. 36.

    Stevenson , “The Body Snatcher,” 86–87.

  37. 37.

    Stevenson , “The Body Snatcher,” 91.

  38. 38.

    Julian Wolfreys , Victorian Hauntings: Spectrality, Gothic, the Uncanny and Literature (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2002), 8.

  39. 39.

    David Pike , Subterranean Cities: The World Beneath Paris and London 1800–1945 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005), 103.

  40. 40.

    Elisabeth Bronfen , Over Her Dead Body: Death, Femininity and the Aesthetic (New York: Routledge, 1992), 65.

  41. 41.

    Lyn Pykett , The Sensation Novel: From The Woman in White to The Moonstone (Plymouth: Northcote, 1994), 16.

  42. 42.

    W. Fraser Rae, “Lady Audley’s Secret,” The Times (London), 18 November 1862: 8.

  43. 43.

    Mary Elizabeth Braddon, Lady Audley’s Secret (London: Tinsley Books, 1862), 84.

  44. 44.

    Braddon, Lady Audley’s Secret, 244.

  45. 45.

    Braddon, Lady Audley’s Secret , 379.

  46. 46.

    Philippe Ariès , Western Attitudes Toward Death: From the Middle Ages to the Present, trans. Patricia M. Ranum (London: Marion Boyers, 1976), 67, emphasis in original.

  47. 47.

    David Cannadine , “War and Death, Grief and Mourning in Modern Britain,” in Mirrors of Mortality: Studies in the Social History of Death, ed. Joachim Whaley, 187–242 (London: Europa, 1981), 218.

  48. 48.

    Siegfried Sassoon , “On Passing the New Menin Gate,” in Cambridge Poets of the Great War, ed. Michael Copp, 234 (Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2001), 7, 14.

  49. 49.

    Chris Brooks , Mortal Remains: The History and Present State of the Victorian and Edwardian Cemetery (Devon, UK: Wheaton, 1989), i.

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Hwang, H. (2018). Exhuming the City: The Politics and Poetics of Graveyard Clearance. In: Moore, G., Smith, M. (eds) Victorian Environments. Palgrave Studies in Nineteenth-Century Writing and Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57337-7_7

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