Abstract
This chapter explores the unique affinity with the literary sphere proclaimed by the animal defense movement. I argue that the remarkable expressions of humanitarian sympathy in eighteenth century literature, the binary frame of reference widely adopted by the movement in its representation of the battle against animal experimentation, as well as the ultimate reliance on “the heart” by many reformers, all contributed to the movement’s conspicuous identification with the literary tradition. I then illustrate how, through a series of literary tasks, such as reviews, criticism, construction of literary lineage, editing of anthologies of humanely-inspired literature, solicitation of support from writers, and involvement in actual writing, the movement deeply engaged with the literary tradition in their mobilization for the animal cause. In this way the animal protection movement turned literature into a vital reservoir of moral, intellectual, and cultural resources for its various objectives, which was especially important in the age of mass literacy and mass publication from the 1870s onwards.
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Notes
- 1.
From Canto III in Don Juan, quoted in F. H. Suckling, “Seed Time and Harvest XII. The Great Writers on Humanity,” 103.
- 2.
See “The Brown Dog Procession,” Anti-vivisection Review 2 (1910–1): 284–290.
- 3.
See, e.g., Taylor, “Shakespeare and Radicalism”; Menely, “Acts of Sympathy: Abolitionist Poetry and Transatlantic Identification.”
- 4.
On works that touched upon the relationships between humanitarianism and eighteenth-century literature, see Harwood, The Love for Animals and How It Developed in Great Britain; Turner, All Heaven in a Rage; Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 173–181; Maehle, “Literary Responses to Animal Experimentation in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Britain”; Barker-Benfield, The Culture of Sensibility, Chapter 5.
- 5.
See, e.g., Scholtmeijer, Animal Victims in Modern Fiction; Gates, Kindred Nature; Kenyon-Jones, Kindred Brutes; Perkins, Romanticism and Animal Rights; Morse and Danahay eds., Victorian Animal Dreams; Brown, Homeless Dogs and Melancholy Apes; Heymans, Animality in British Romanticism; Menely, The Animal Claim; Donovan, The Aesthetics of Care; Mazzeno and Morrison eds., Animals in Victorian Literature and Culture; Mazzeno and Morrison eds., Victorian Writers and the Environment: Ecocritical Perspectives.
- 6.
See, especially, Menely, The Animal Claim.
- 7.
See Halttunen, “Humanitarianism and the Pornography of Pain in Anglo-American Culture”; Tobias, The Animal Claim, 176–182; Ahern ed., Affect and Abolition in Anglo-Atlantic; Ellis, The Politics of Sensibility; Benedict, Framing Feeling; Ellis, “Suffering Things”; Carey, British Abolitionism and the Rhetoric of Sensibility; Csengei, Sympathy, Sensibility and the Literature of Feeling in the Eighteenth Century.
- 8.
Helps, Some Talk About Animals and Their Masters, 106.
- 9.
Axon, “The Poets as Protectors of Animals,” 189–190. See also Axon, “The Moral Teaching of Milton’s Poetry.”
- 10.
Harrison, “The Duties of Man to the Lower Animals,” 10.
- 11.
See, e.g., Preece, Awe for the Tiger, Love for the Lamb.
- 12.
See Todd, Sensibility; Mullan, Sentiment and Sociability.
- 13.
Beattie, Essays: On Poetry and Music, 182.
- 14.
Perkins, Romanticism and Animal Rights, x.
- 15.
Williams, “Pioneers of Humanitarianism. VIII,” 164.
- 16.
Salt, “Humanitarianism,” in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, 837.
- 17.
On the ethical ambiguity of Romantic art over the issue of hunting, see MacKenzie, The Empire of Nature, 25–53; Donald, Picturing Animals in Britain, 233–305.
- 18.
On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History, 139.
- 19.
On the men of letters’ roles and the Victorian “sage” concept, see Holloway, The Victorian Sage; Knights, The Idea of the Clerisy in the Nineteenth Century; Heyck, The Transformation of Intellectual Life in Victorian England.
- 20.
Wordsworth to John Wilson, 1800, quoted in Blamires, A History of Literary Criticism, 222.
- 21.
Landow, The Aesthetic and Critical Theories of John Ruskin, 372–378.
- 22.
See Woodfield, R. H. Hutton: Critic and Theologian.
- 23.
Cobbe, “The Education of the Emotions,” 55.
- 24.
“Lind-af-Hageby v. Astor and others, report of the trial,” Anti-vivisection Review, nos. 3 & 4, 1913, 272–288, at 284.
- 25.
Salt, Seventy Years among the Savages, 101.
- 26.
Consolations of a Faddist, 7.
- 27.
For some early key texts, see Paradis and Postlewait eds., Victorian Science and Victorian Values; Beer, Darwin’s Plots; Levine ed., One Culture; Beer, Open Fields.
- 28.
See Dawson, Darwin, Literature and Victorian Respectability; Dewitt, Moral Authority, Men of Science, and the Victorian Novel.
- 29.
See Menely, The Animal Claim, 182–201; Ellis, “Suffering Things,” 92–94; Tague, Animal Companions; Dixon, Weeping Britannia, 108–122.
- 30.
Menely, The Animal Claim, 182–201.
- 31.
See White, “Sympathy under the Knife”; White, “Darwin’s Emotions”; Boddice, The Science of Sympathy.
- 32.
See Cyon, “The Anti-vivisectionist Agitation,” 509. For more on the phenomenon, see Donald, Women Against Cruelty; French, Antivivisection and Medical Science in Victorian Society, 349. French, however, often took the accusations of critics as a truthful representation of the anatomy of the anti-vivisectionists’ “mind.”
- 33.
See Moscucci, The Science of Woman; Russet, Sexual Science; Dixon, From Passions to Emotions; White, “Darwin Wept”; Dixon, Weeping Britannia.
- 34.
See Buettinger, “Antivivisection and the Charge of Zoophil-Psychosis in the Early Twentieth Century.”
- 35.
See Cobbe, The Scientific Spirit of the Age, 12; Cobbe, Physiology as a Branch of Education. An example of mechanical explanation criticized by Cobbe in The Scientific Spirit of the Age was the one on tear shedding offered in Darwin’s The Expressions of Emotions in Man and Animals (1872) to replace the older explanation that connected inner feeling and character with outward expressions.
- 36.
Cobbe, The Scientific Spirit of the Age, 16, 31–32.
- 37.
On Victorian poetry’s relation to the changing fate of the culture of the heart, see Blair, Victorian Poetry and the Culture of the Heart.
- 38.
See White, Thomas Huxley: Making the “Man of Science,” Chapter 3.
- 39.
Coleridge, The Idolatry of Science, 4–5.
- 40.
Ibid., 80.
- 41.
On the anti-vivisectionists’ construction of the “mad scientists,” see Boddice, The Science of Sympathy, 53–71.
- 42.
Cobbe, The Medical Profession and Its Morality, 15.
- 43.
Barlow ed., The Autobiography of Charles Darwin, 1809–1882, 138. See, e.g., “Darwin and Vivisection (from The Morning Leader, October 11, 1910),” Zoophilist and Animals’ Defender, November 1910, 123. Ruskin was also “wont to cite Darwin’s confession” to illustrate the same point; see Coleridge, Famous Victorians I Have Known, 23–24.
- 44.
Menely, The Animal Claim, 187.
- 45.
Johns, “The Evolution of Animals’ ‘Rights’,” Animals’ Friend, November 1913, 27.
- 46.
Ouida, The New Priesthood, 61.
- 47.
Levy, “Vivisection and Moral Evolution,” 41.
- 48.
Coleridge, The Idolatry of Science, 12.
- 49.
Lind-af-Hageby and Schartau, The Shambles of Science, x; The Anti-vivisection Review, nos. 3 & 4, 1913, 252.
- 50.
S., “Sentiment,” 172.
- 51.
Salt, Story of My Cousins, 70.
- 52.
Figures from the Mitchell’s Newspaper Press Directory, quoted from Eliot, “The Business of Victorian Publishing,” 48.
- 53.
See Mays, “The Disease of Reading and Victorian Periodicals”; Miller, Slow Print.
- 54.
Jones, “Victorian Literary Theory,” 244.
- 55.
See Guy and Small, “The British ‘Man of Letters’ and the Rise of the Professional,” 382–384.
- 56.
Small, Conditions for Criticism, 3.
- 57.
Eliot, “The Business of Victorian Publishing,” 48; “Journals, Magazines and Periodicals Devoted to Animals,” in The Humane Yearbook and Directory of Animal Protection Societies, 1902. For more on the propagandistic work engaged by the anti-vivisection movement, see French, Antivivisection in Victorian Society, 252–270.
- 58.
Cobbe, “The Morals of Literature,” 261.
- 59.
Ibid., 261–262.
- 60.
Cobbe, The Friend of Man and His Friends—The Poets, 8–9; see also Cobbe’s False Beasts and True, which examined animals in fable and art from an animal-friendly perspective.
- 61.
For more on Salt’s literary work, see Hendrick, Henry Salt, Chapter 5.
- 62.
Salt, “Among the Authors: Criticism a Science,” 570.
- 63.
“Notes,” Humane Review 2 (1902): 367.
- 64.
Letter from H. S. Salt to W. E. A. Axon, dated March 19, 1907, Axon Papers, John Rylands Library, Manchester.
- 65.
Salt, “Among the Authors: Criticism a Science,” 569.
- 66.
Ibid., 572.
- 67.
See Collini, Public Moralists, 342–374.
- 68.
Guy and Small, “The British ‘Man of Letters’ and the Rise of the Professional,” 381.
- 69.
Gross, The Rise and Fall of the Man of Letters, 193.
- 70.
See, e.g., Coleridge and Schäfer, The Torture of Animals for the Sake of Knowledge, 18–19; Earl of Shaftesbury, Substance of a Speech in Support of Lord Truro’s Bill, 9–10.
- 71.
See Jenkyns, The Victorians and Ancient Greece; Turner, The Greek Heritage in Victorian Britain.
- 72.
See Almond, The British Discovery of Buddhism; Dixon, Divine Feminine.
- 73.
Kijinski, “John Morley’s ‘English Men of Letters’ Series and the Politics of Reading,” 205–225, 213.
- 74.
The work was also republished by the University of Illinois Press in 2003 with a new introduction by Carol J. Adams.
- 75.
Salt, “Humanitarianism,” Westminster Review, 81.
- 76.
Williams, “Two ‘Pagan’ Humanitarians,” 90.
- 77.
Lloyd ed., The Great Kinship, xiii–xiv.
- 78.
See Perkins, A History of Modern Poetry, 5–6.
- 79.
Arnold, “Preface to Poetry of Common Life (1831),” 252–253.
- 80.
Cobbe, “The Hierarchy of Art,” 298.
- 81.
Houston, “Newspaper Poems,” 241; Miller, Slow Print, 169; see also Robson, “The Presence of Poetry.”
- 82.
On the popularity of Cowper among sections of the middle classes in the first half of the nineteenth century, see Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, 155–172.
- 83.
Report of the Society for Preventing Wanton Cruelty to Brute Animals.
- 84.
See, e.g., Leaflets No. 5. On Cruelty to Horses, 1; Smith, The Elysium of Animals, 1836, front page.
- 85.
Young, The Sin and Folly of Cruelty to Brute Animals, 23–24.
- 86.
Ladies’ Committee Minutes, 1879, quoted in Donald, Women against Cruelty, Chapter 3.
- 87.
Cobbe, The Friend of Man, 84.
- 88.
“Notes,” Humane Review 1 (1900–1901): 174–175.
- 89.
See Gill, William Wordsworth; idem, “William Wordsworth,” http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-29973. Accessed 7 December 2017.
- 90.
See the “Dedication” to “White doe of Rylstone,” a poem less widely read today but beloved by many Victorians.
- 91.
Collected in Gill ed., William Wordsworth: The Major Works, 173.
- 92.
Hering, “Relations of Man to the Lower Animals in Wordsworth,” 424–425.
- 93.
E. C., “The Humane Poets. William Wordsworth,” 131.
- 94.
Japp, “Robert Burns as Humanitarian Poet,” Humane Review 6 (1906): 222, 229.
- 95.
Heath, “Blake as Humanitarian,” 82.
- 96.
For a few examples, see Freeman, “The Morality of Field Sports”; Greenwood, “The Ethics of Field Sports,” 169–173; “A Cloud of Witnesses Against Torture,” Animals’ Friend, April 1897, 125–127; “The Poet and the Vivisected Dog,” Anti-vivisection Review, April–June, 1914, 65; “Some Opinions of Dr. Johnson,” Animals’ Guardian, January 1893, 63–64.
- 97.
“Manifesto of the Humanitarian League.”
- 98.
Printed on the title page of the annual reports of the RSPCA from 1877 to at least 1907.
- 99.
See “Annual Meeting of the National Anti-Vivisection Society,” Zoophilist, June 1899, 45–52, at 51.
- 100.
Menely, The Animal Claim, 181–182, 200–201.
- 101.
Hudson, Martin Tupper, 141.
- 102.
Quoted in (H. S. Salt), “Poetry of Animal Life,” Humane Review 1 (1900–1901): 381–384, at 382.
- 103.
Ibid. See also Salt, Kith and Kin, vi.
- 104.
On the parodying of Tennyson’s poetry and politics by Salt and others within the socialist movement, see Salt, Tennyson as a Thinker; Miller, Slow Print, 188–194.
- 105.
See Miller, Slow Print, 155; “The Doyen of Humanitarianism. Mr. Howard Williams,” Cruel Sports, February 1927, 14–15; Axon, “Shelley’s Vegetarianism,” 72–82; Jupp, Wayfarings; “Tributes to Mr. H. B. Amos,” League Doings, January–March, 1947.
- 106.
For Shelley’s reception in the nineteenth century, see Barcus ed., Shelley: The Critical Heritage.
- 107.
Salt, Percy Bysshe Shelley: Poet and Pioneer, 120. Salt’s other major works on Shelley included A Shelley Primer (1887), Percy Bysshe Shelley: A Monograph (1892), Shelley as a Pioneer of Humanitarianism (1902), Selected Prose Works of Shelley (1915), “Shelley as a Pioneer.”
- 108.
For Salt’s championship of Shelley in the radical and literary circles, see Miller, Slow Print, 149–158.
- 109.
Jupp, The Religion of Nature and of Human Experience, 149.
- 110.
“Beauty in Civic Life,” Humanitarian, January 1912, 5.
- 111.
E. C., “The Humane Poets. John Keats,” 51.
- 112.
Shelley, A Defence of Poetry, 34.
- 113.
From Blake’s Songs of Innocence and of Experience (1795), and selected in Salt, Kith and Kin, 30–31. The poem begins: “Tyger Tyger, burning bright, / In the forests of the night: / What immortal hand or eye, / Could frame thy fearful symmetry?”
- 114.
Quoted in Heath, “Blake as Humanitarian,” 78.
- 115.
Letter from W. H. Hudson to Salt, quoted in Salt, Company I Have Kept, 123.
- 116.
Ibid.
- 117.
See Eisner, Nineteenth-Century Poetry and Literary Celebrity; McDonell, “Henry James, Literary Fame and the Problem of Robert Browning,” 46.
- 118.
Salt, “Humanity and Art,” 146; “The Humanitarian League,” Vegetarian Messenger, June 1916, 128–130, at 129–130.
- 119.
S. Coleridge to G. Meredith, October 3, 1906, printed in “Correspondence. Mr. Meredith and Vivisection,” Zoophilist and Animals’ Defender, June 1909, 24–25, at 24. For an evaluation of Meredith’s reputation in nineteenth-century Britain, see Williams, Meredith: The Critical Heritage.
- 120.
Coleridge, Opening Statement from the Evidence Given by the Honble. Stephen Coleridge, 4.
- 121.
“Lind-af-Hageby v. Astor and Others,” Anti-Vivisection Review, nos. 3 & 4, 1913, 284.
- 122.
For a description of the VSS committee room, see “The Rise and Progress of the Victorian Street Society,” Animals’ Friend, November 1895, 24–27.
- 123.
See Zoophilist and Animals’ Defender, November 1901 & November 1902.
- 124.
Jump ed., Tennyson: The Critical Heritage, 11–13.
- 125.
See Litzinger, Time’s Revenges: Browning’s Reputation as a Thinker 1889–1962; Litzinger and Smalley eds., Browning: The Critical Heritage.
- 126.
See Levi, Tennyson, 49.
- 127.
See Cobbe, Life of Frances Power Cobbe, 553.
- 128.
See Cobbe, The Friend of Man and His Friends—The Poet, 127–128; Salt, “The Poet Laureate as Philosopher and Peer,” 139–140; Salt, Tennyson as a Thinker, 13.
- 129.
See Berdoe, “The Humane Poets. No. 4.—Robert Browning and the Animals.” On the later realization of the anti-vivisection hospital, see Bates, Anti-vivisection and the Profession of Medicine in Britain, 99–132.
- 130.
See R. Browning to F. P. Cobbe, December 28, 1874, quoted in Coleridge, “Robert Browning,” 97.
- 131.
Quoted in full in Cobbe, The Friend of Man and His Friends—The Poets, 128–129.
- 132.
Marsh, Christina Rossetti, 435. For an animal-centered discussion of Rossetti’s love of animals and work for the anti-vivisection cause, see Mayer, “Come Buy, Come Buy!”
- 133.
See “Robert Buchanan and His Best Friend,” Animals Friend, December 1913, 45. Together with Mark Twain and Jerome K. Jerome, Buchanan also served as an Honorary Member of the LAVS since 1900.
- 134.
Letter from Salt to Carpenter, MSS 356-12, 4 November 1892, Carpenter Collection, Sheffield Public Library.
- 135.
On the intimate connections between Victorian novels, moral didacticism, and social reform, see Stang, The Theory of the Novel in England: 1850–1870, 64–72; Claybaugh, The Novel of Purpose. Not all nineteenth-century novelists, however, shared the same view regarding art’s moral function.
- 136.
For an in-depth discussion of Sewell’s humane intent behind her writing of Black Beauty and critique of past works that tended to sidestep this intent, see Donald, Women against Cruelty, Chapter 6. I do not discuss here the use of the fictional mode in children’s literature for humane education; for more on this genre of literature, see Cosslett, Talking Animals in British Children’s Fiction, 1786–1914.
- 137.
See Gavin, “Introduction”; Pollock, “Ouida’s Rhetoric of Empathy,” 139.
- 138.
Wilson, The Welfare of Performing Animals, 33–34; Beers, For the Prevention of Cruelty, 105–107.
- 139.
For novels in which the theme of vivisection received primary or secondary attention, see the works of G. MacDonald, E. Melena, L. Graham, M. Daal, R. L. Stevenson, E. Berdoe, H. G. Wells, J. Cassidy, B. Pain, M. Corelli, E. Marston, M. Maartens, W. B. Maxwell, G. Colmore, E. S. Phelps, M. Reed, H. Huntly, W. Hadwen.
- 140.
For more on the anti-vivisection novels, see, e.g., Dewitt, Moral Authority, Men of Science, and the Victorian Novel; Straley, “Love and Vivisection”; Otis, “Howled Out of the Country”; Talairach-Vielmas, Wilkie Collins, Medicine and the Gothic; Waddington, “Death at St. Bernard’s”; Rieger, “St. Bernard’s.”
- 141.
Cobbe, Life of Frances Power Cobbe, 558–559; Collins, Heart and Science , xiii.
- 142.
Graham, The Professor’s Wife, 159–167.
- 143.
The same point has also been discussed in Dewitt, Moral Authority, Men of Science, and the Victorian Novel, 147.
- 144.
Cosslett, Talking Animals in British Children’s Fiction, 80–81.
- 145.
This, however, is far from an inclusive list. The unusually large body of literary figures who were involved in animal protection in the nineteenth century is a subject worthy of further research.
- 146.
Moss, Valiant Crusade, 46.
- 147.
For more on Dickens’ role in the campaign, see Morrison, “Dickens, Household Words , and the Smithfield Controversy at the Time of the Great Exhibition.”
- 148.
Hardy, however, did not fully support the anti-vivisection cause due to his belief in animal experimentation’s utility to humankind. For further discussion of Hardy’s view on the animal question, see, West, Thomas Hardy and Animals; Cohn, “No Insignificant Creature”; Morrison, “Humanity Towards Man, Woman, and the Lower Animals”; Roth, “The Zoocentric Ecology of Hardy’s Poetic Consciousness.”
- 149.
See Editor, “A Merciful Man (Scene from Jude the Obscure by Thomas Hardy),” Animals’ Friend, December 1895, 50–51; “Thomas Hardy on the Sport of Shooting (From Tess of the D’Urbervilles),” Animals’ Friend, May 1898, 135.
- 150.
Quoted in “Thomas Hardy,” Animal World, February 1928, 14.
- 151.
Stirling, The Fine and the Wicked, 63.
- 152.
See, for example, her A Dog of Flanders (1872), Bimbi (1882), and Puck (1870). For an analysis of animal themes in Ouida‘s works, see Pollock, “Ouida’s Rhetoric of Empathy.”
- 153.
See Ouida, The New Priesthood. Ouida’s critical essays on animal cruelty were also collected in her Views and Opinions (1895) and Critical Studies (1900).
- 154.
See BUAV’s pamphlet, titled the Views of Men and Women of Note on Vivisection and Second Annual Report of the BUAV, 1900, 8, U DBV/3/1, BUAV Archive, University of Hull.
- 155.
Lee, Ouida, 231.
- 156.
Evening News report, quoted in “The Brown Dog Procession,” Anti-vivisection Review 2 (1910–1911): 284–290, at 290.
- 157.
For Galsworthy’s involvement in animal campaigns, see Gindin, John Galsworthy’s Life and Art, 208, 293, 536; see also Galsworthy’s A Bit o’Love; A Play in Three Acts (1915), A Sheaf (1916). Galsworthy, however, did not oppose game bird shooting or fox hunting .
- 158.
William Watson (1858–1935) was a poet and critic, who is largely forgotten today but was much celebrated around the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
- 159.
Minutes of Council Meeting, BUAV, May 29, 1924, unpaginated, U DBV/2/3, BUAV Archive, University of Hull.
- 160.
“Slaughter-House Reform,” Humanitarian, February 1913 & June 1913.
- 161.
“The Plumage Bill,” Humanitarian, May 1914; see also Salt, “Correspondence. Animals in Captivity.”
- 162.
See Small, Conditions for Criticism; Guy and Small, “The British ‘Man of Letters’ and the Rise of the Professional”; Guy, “Specialisation and Social Utility: Disciplining English Studies.”
- 163.
The rise of animal-centered criticism within the scholarly community itself can be seen as yet another attempt to mobilize literature in support of the broadly defined movement for animals.
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Li, Ch. (2019). Mobilizing Literary Traditions: “The Ultimate Word Will Be Spoken…by the Heart”. In: Mobilizing Traditions in the First Wave of the British Animal Defense Movement. The Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-52651-9_6
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