Abstract
This chapter shows that, while there was no consensus among secularists and socialists regarding the animal cause, during the progressive fin de siècle period, numerous freethinkers, socialists, and suffragists joined the animal defense movement and employed radical concepts, rhetoric, critiques and tactics, to challenge conventional politics of the animal defense movement. For example, they proposed consistent principles of “humanitarianism” and “animal rights” in reaction to the mainstream movement’s conservative ideologies, with all their inconsistencies and social bias. The political language of the day, involving notions such as “justice” and “rights” with radical connotations, was consciously adopted to replace or supplement the pious language of “mercy” and “kindness” to animals. New campaigns that further challenged humans’ exploitation of animals, in practices such as hunting and meat-eating, also surfaced. Inspired by the increasingly bold tactics adopted in the progressive fin de siècle era, a substantial section of the movement even resorted to campaigning methods such as undercover investigations, media exposure, giant poster displays, shop propaganda, and open-air demonstrations that the movement had previously shunned. With such wide-ranging mobilization of oppositional political resources and their recreated uses, the movement’s radical fringe not only helped to transform the movement in terms of its ideology, objectives, and tactics, but also sustained it in its second century of operation as it struggled to keep pace with the progressive currents of the new age.
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Notes
- 1.
In recent decades, the intersectionality of different forms of oppression and the need for alliance politics have also become the chief concerns of the rising field of Critical Animal Studies, see Best, “The Rise of Critical Animal Studies”; Anthony J. Nocella II, et al., eds., Defining Critical Animal Studies; Matsouka and Sorenson, Critical Animal Studies; Taylor, The Rise of Critical Animal Studies.
- 2.
By the term “conservative,” I am referring not to the party line of the Conservatives as opposed to the Liberals, but to an attitude that affirmed rather than challenging the political systems and ideologies that constituted the status quo.
- 3.
Singer, Animal Liberation, xvi.
- 4.
Lansbury, The Old Brown Dog, 170, xi.
- 5.
Kean, “The ‘Smooth Cool Men of Science’”; Kean, Animal Rights, 132–164; Leneman, “The Awakened Instinct”; Donald, Women Against Cruelty, Chapters 5 and 6. See also Preece, Animal Sensibility and Inclusive Justice in the Age of Bernard Shaw.
- 6.
In this chapter, I also do not treat political radicalism as an unmediated, fixed body of thought, existing in the pure realm of ideas, but as a complex, fluid set of ideas, tendencies, and practices, embodied in and expressed through “movements.” I therefore do not examine the ideas in secularist and socialist thought as such, but explore instead the actual attitudes of the participants in these movements toward the animal cause through their reading and utilization of the discourse within these traditions.
- 7.
See Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom; Roberts, Making English Moral; Hunt, Governing Morals.
- 8.
Roberts, Making English Moral, 245–246.
- 9.
The causes were manifold. The “structural” and “social” rather than “moral” analysis of social problems, the expansion of the state’s role, the professionalization of social work, and the emerging political culture with an emphasis on group interests produced by the broadening of enfranchisement that cast doubt on the “altruistic” claims of the reforming “elites,” were all offered as explanations for the decline of the moral reform tradition by Roberts.
- 10.
Wheeler, “Animal Teatment.”
- 11.
On the secularist movement, see Budd, Varieties of Unbelief; Royle, Radicals, Secularists and Republicans; Nash, Secularism, Art and Freedom.
- 12.
On secularists’ contribution to and promotion of scientific naturalism, see Barton, “Sunday Lecture Societies”; Rectenwald, Nineteenth-Century British Secularism, 107–134. However, in the 1870s, as the scientific community gradually gained in respectability, it consciously distanced itself from the secularist movement due to the latter’s radical associations.
- 13.
See O. D. O., “Sidney Smith on the Vice Society”; “Sugar Plums,” Freethinker, June 17, 1883, 189–190.
- 14.
Besant, Vivisection, 8.
- 15.
Robertson, “The Ethics of Vivisection.”
- 16.
Letter received by Mrs. Bradlaugh Bonner, daughter of Bradlaugh; quoted in Robertson, “The Rights of Animals,” 371.
- 17.
Bradlaugh, “A Bull-Fight in Madrid.”
- 18.
Dyas, “Cruelty and Christianity in Italy (Part II),” 87.
- 19.
Besant, Against Vivisection; Besant, Vivisection in Excels is; Robertson, “The Philosophy of Vivisection.”
- 20.
Holyoake, “Characteristics of the Drama,” xi.
- 21.
Foote, “The Kinship of Life,” 307.
- 22.
Undated letter from G. W. Foote to H. S. Salt, Wynne-Tyson Collection, Sussex. Quoted also in H. S. Salt, “Mr. G. W. Foote,” Humanitarian, January–February 1916, 134.
- 23.
Foote, “The Kinship of Life,” 303.
- 24.
On the mainstream movement’s reception of evolutionary theories, see Chapter 5.
- 25.
Dyas, “Cruelty and Christianity in Italy (Part I),” 27.
- 26.
Foote, “The Kinship of Life,” 303–304.
- 27.
See Foote, “Dying Like a Dog”; Foote, “Christianity and Animals.”
- 28.
Ellis, “The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.” Lankester refers to E. Ray Lankester, an advocate of Darwinism, known as “Huxley’s bulldog.”
- 29.
Wheeler, “Animal Treatment.”
- 30.
May 20, 1883, Freethinker, 156. See also Macrobius, “Concerning Vivisection”; Robertson, “Notes and Comments.”
- 31.
Salt, “Anti-vivisectionists and the Odium Theologicum.”
- 32.
Letter from H. S. Salt to E. Carpenter, dated November 13, 1903, Carpenter Collection, MSS 356-22 (2), Sheffield Public Library.
- 33.
Freethinker, June 17, 1894, 384.
- 34.
See Marsh, Word Crimes.
- 35.
“Notes and Notices,” Zoophilist and Animals’ Defender, April 1910, 197.
- 36.
Justice, January 12, 1889, 2. PGM refers to the Pall Mall Gazette that was edited by W. T. Stead.
- 37.
Wallace, Studies Scientific and Social, 527–528.
- 38.
See Bevir, The Making of British Socialism.
- 39.
Bevir, The Making of British Socialism, 14. See also Lawrence, “Popular Radicalism and the Socialist Revival in Britain”; Goldman, “Ruskin, Oxford, and the British Labour Movement 1880–1914.”
- 40.
See “Brutes and Brutes,” Justice, June 21, 1884, 1; “Lower Than the Beasts,” Justice, July 26, 1884, 1; “Horrible Cruelty to Animals,” Justice, December 12, 1885, 5; “Housing Our Cats,” Justice, May 22, 1886, 3; “Man and Beast,” Justice, July 17, 1886, 1; “Workmen and Horses,” The Commonweal, August 7, 1886, 147.
- 41.
Burns, “Outside the Dog’s Home.”
- 42.
Bax, “Free Trade in Hydrophobia.”
- 43.
Burns, “Outside the Dog’s Home.”
- 44.
Ibid.
- 45.
Ibid.
- 46.
See “Notes,” Humane Review 1 (1900–1901): 175.
- 47.
Tanner, “Vivisection.”
- 48.
While some historians saw ethical socialism as a grouping within the socialist movement, others regarded it as a phase in the movement before it diverted its energy into elections and issues of governance since the mid-1900s. For more on ethical socialism, see Pierson, Marxism and the Origins of British Socialism; Yeo, “A New Life : The Religion of Socialism in Britain”; Bevir, The Making of British Socialism.
- 49.
Morgan, Keir Hardie, 67.
- 50.
Labour Leader, February 24, 1905, 557.
- 51.
Daddy Time, “Chats with Lads and Lasses,” Labour Leader, May 18, 1895, 12.
- 52.
Hardie, From Serfdom to Socialism, 35.
- 53.
Clayton, “Between Ourselves: A Tale of a Dog.”
- 54.
Bevir, The Making of British Socialism, 284.
- 55.
Ibid., 282; Payne, “Work in Our Sunday Schools.”
- 56.
See Blatchford, “Vegetarianism.”
- 57.
Blatchford, Merrie England, 16.
- 58.
See, e.g., “What Shall We Eat?” Brotherhood, August 1888, 25–26, in which the readers were “advised to give Vegetarianism a trial,” and several reasons, including moral and ethical ones, were provided in support of vegetarianism.
- 59.
Hyndman, “Correspondence: Mr. Hyndman on Vegetarianism, Anti-toxin and Vivisection,” 192.
- 60.
Le Bosquet, “Down with the Faddist!” 351.
- 61.
“Down with the Faddist! A Reply to C. H. Le Bosquet,” British Socialist, September 1913, 391–394, at 392.
- 62.
Ibid., 391.
- 63.
Quoted in Pierson, Marxism and the Origins of British Socialism, 169.
- 64.
See for example Burrow’s “Vivisectionist Fallacies and Futilities,” Justice, August 24, 1912, 5 and his Moral Degradation and an Infamy.
- 65.
Quoted in Pierson, Marxism and the Origins of British Socialism, 170.
- 66.
See “A Democratic Protest Against Vivisection,” Humanity, March 1896, 101; Bosquet, “Down with the Faddist!” 393.
- 67.
Bell, Fair Treatment for Animals, 296.
- 68.
For similar critiques raised earlier in the movement, see Donald, “Beastly Sights”; Donald, Women Against Cruelty, Chapter 1 on Elizabeth Heyrick and Chapter 4 on Anna Sewell.
- 69.
See Catherine Bruce Glasier’s speech given at an NAVS meeting, “Anti-Vivisection,” Labour Leader, June 9, 1900, 181.
- 70.
Wallace, Studies Scientific and Social, 527–528.
- 71.
London, “Foreword,” xii.
- 72.
For the relationship between socialism and Darwinism in the late nineteenth century, see Stack, “The First Darwinism Left.”
- 73.
Reclus, “The Great Kinship”; “Our Lost Kinship,” Labour Leader, February 16, 1906, 564.
- 74.
On the theosophists’ concern with the animal question, see Dixon, Divine Feminine, 132–134, 201.
- 75.
Bevir argued for a broad cultural shift from the “age of atonement” to an “age of immanentism” at this time, referring to the turn from the evangelical ethic of personal duty and salvation to one of “social fellowship.” See Bevir, The Making of Socialism, 217–297.
- 76.
Glasier, “Should We Be Humanitarians?” Labour Leader, quoted in Humanitarian, February 1907, 106.
- 77.
Conway and Glasier, The Religion of Socialism, 4, 8.
- 78.
For two not entirely satisfactory works on Salt and the HL, see Winsten, Salt and His Circle; Weinbren, “Against All Cruelty.” For a concise biography of Salt, see Hendrick, Henry Salt. See also Salt’s autobiographical work, Seventy Years Among Savages.
- 79.
Salt, Seventy Years Among Savages, 48–49.
- 80.
Salt, The Nursery of Toryism.
- 81.
Salt, “Song of the Respectables.”
- 82.
Among the more notable were Shaw, Carpenter, the Webbs, H. M. Hyndman, Sidney Olivier, and James Ramsey Macdonald.
- 83.
See Joynes, The Adventures of a Tourist in Ireland.
- 84.
On green thought in the progressive circles at this time, see Gould, Early Green Politics.
- 85.
Salt, The Song of the Respectables, 21.
- 86.
Quoted in Salt, “Edward Carpenter’s Writings,” 166. See also Carpenter, “High Street, Kensington.”
- 87.
H. S. Salt, “Reviews,” Humanity, August 1897, 63.
- 88.
See the RSPCA’s address to the Queen on this occasion in RSPCA Annual Report, 1896, 19.
- 89.
H. S. Salt, “Thoughts on the Jubilee,” Humanity, July 1897, 50.
- 90.
Salt, “Humanitarianism,” Westminster Review, 80.
- 91.
Salt, Humanitarianism, 21.
- 92.
Salt, “Cruel sports,” 552.
- 93.
Salt, “Humanitarianism,” Westminster Review, 90.
- 94.
The Humane Yearbook and Directory of Animal Protection Societies, 62.
- 95.
Salt, “Prefatory Note,” v–vi.
- 96.
The latter three departments concerned with work for animals merged into Animals’ Defense Department in 1908.
- 97.
Kenworthy, “The Humanitarian View,” 3–4. See also Baillie-Weaver, The Oneness of All Movements; Despard, Theosophy and the Woman’s Movement; Colmore, “Humanitarianism and the Ideal Life.”
- 98.
Salt, “Humanitarianism,” in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, 838.
- 99.
For a well-contextualised discussion of Hutcheson’s ideas and their relations to those of Primatt and Bentham, see Garrett, “Francis Hutcheson and the Origin of Animal Rights.”
- 100.
Innes, “Happiness Contested,” 95.
- 101.
Primatt, A Dissertation on the Duty of Mercy; Young, An Essay on Humanity to Animals; Preece and Li eds., William Drummond’s The Rights of Animals ; Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, Cruelty to Animals Bill, House of Lords, May 15, 1809, 554–571.
- 102.
Salt, Animals’ Rights , 9.
- 103.
Salt, “The Rights of Animals,” 210.
- 104.
For critiques of Salt’s ideas from the contemporary philosophical positions of animal rights and inclusive justice, see Boddice, A History of Attitudes and Behaviours Towards Animals, 344–346; Preece, Animal Sensibility and Inclusive Justice in the Age of Bernard Shaw.
- 105.
Salt, Animals’ Rights , 20–21.
- 106.
“Manifesto of the Humanitarian League.”
- 107.
Salt, The Logic of Vegetarianism, 110.
- 108.
Salt, “A Professor of Logic on the Rights of Animals,” 37.
- 109.
Williams, “Humane Nomenclature,” 42.
- 110.
Twenty-Third Annual Report, Humanitarian League, 1914, 5–6.
- 111.
Editor, “The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals,” 151–152.
- 112.
“Introduction to the Humanitarian League”; Fifth Annual Report of the Humanitarian League, 1895–1896, 1–2.
- 113.
See, e.g., Kingsford, “Dr. Anna Kingsford,” 172; Monro, “The Inner Life of Animals.”
- 114.
Ross, “Justice to Animals,” 171. See also his “From a Sermon Preached on ‘Animal Sunday’.”
- 115.
“Rights of Animals,” Animals’ Guardian, September 1895, 198.
- 116.
“Annual Meeting of the London Anti-Vivisection Society,” Animals’ Guardian, June 1893, 155–156.
- 117.
Ibid.
- 118.
See “‘Animals’ Rights ,’” Animals’ Defender and Zoophilist, December 1915, 88; Letter from Lind-af-Hageby, Secretary to the Scandinavian Anti-Vivisection Society, to Salt, in Humanity, February 1902, 1.
- 119.
In this picture, the vivisector had a beast’s hooves and wore a butcher’s apron and a Jewish cap. This unfortunately reflected the anti-Semitic sentiment prevalent in parts of the animal defense movement as well as in society in general at this time. Many thanks to Hilda Kean for pointing this out to me.
- 120.
Minutes of the Executive Council, dated May 26, 1911, the Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society, GC/52, Wellcome Medical Library.
- 121.
With the continued growth of commercialized leisure, the fashion industry, coal industry, globalized capitalism, imperial expansion, as well as improved technology, such as the introduction of the breech-loader gun and the double-barrel shotgun, issues involving animal cruelty, such as pigeon-shooting, pit-ponies, fur and feather, seal hunting , foreign cattle trade, battues and big-game hunting, circuses, zoos, and horse racing, all grew in scale. This alarmed the many late Victorian and Edwardian reformers working for animals.
- 122.
Under the new Game Act in 1831, anyone with the means to purchase a certificate was allowed to kill game. However, the high cost of joining a hunt and buying the necessary horses, dress and equipment, maintained the element of social privilege in fox-hunting, which was increasingly attractive to the wealthy but non-landed urban commercial, industrial, and professional classes. See Griffin, Blood Sport.
- 123.
On the anti-hunt tradition in late Victorian and Edwardian political radicalism, see Taylor, Lords of Misrule, 73–96.
- 124.
Ibid., 94.
- 125.
Salt ed., Killing for Sports.
- 126.
For the pro-hunting arguments proposed by the hunting community, see Taylor, Lords of Misrule, 79–82. On the significance of hunting in the late nineteenth-century imperialism ’s ideology, see MacKenzie, “Chivalry, Social Darwinism and Ritualized Killing.”
- 127.
For critical works on militarism and British Imperialism by radicals associated with the HL, see Robertson, “Militarism and Humanity”; Shaw, “Civilization and the Soldier”; Salt, “Notes. Sport and War”; Hobson, The Psychology of Jingoism; Hobson, Imperialism; Carpenter, “Empire in India and Elsewhere”; Adams, “Patriotism: True and False.”
- 128.
Salt, “Sport as a Training for War,” 152.
- 129.
The Beagler Boy: A Journal Conducted by Old Etonians, February 1907, 5. The beagling practiced by the cadets of the Royal Naval College (Britannia) at Dartmouth was also targeted by the HL.
- 130.
Ibid., 5–6.
- 131.
Ibid., 5–6.
- 132.
Ibid., 1.
- 133.
For reviews of the Beagler Boy in newspapers and journals, see Beagler Boy, March 1907, 1–4; Salt, The Eton Hare-Hunt , 21–23.
- 134.
Beagler Boy, March 1907, 2.
- 135.
Beagler Boy, February 1907, 1, 6.
- 136.
These were Lords Cromer, Kilmorey, Onslow and Midleton, see “The Cruelty to Animals Bill,” Humanitarian, June 1909, 140–141.
- 137.
“The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals,” Humanitarian, July 1905, 150. See also Stratton, The Attitude, Past and Present, of the RSPCA; “The RSPCA: A Criticism,” Humane Review 8 (1907): 23–33.
- 138.
“A Retrospect,” Humanitarian, September 1919, 169.
- 139.
See, e.g., BUAV, What We Have Done During the War and its copious leaflets and pamphlets distributed during wartime, now in BUAV Archives, University of Hull.
- 140.
See, e.g., Coleridge, “To the Members of the National Anti-Vivisection Society”; Hadwen, “The Outlook of the New Year.”
- 141.
“A Retrospect,” Humanitarian, September 1919, 168.
- 142.
Coleridge, Memories, 59; Williamson, Power and Protest, 147–149. On the VSS’s 1877 poster campaign, see Donald, Women Against Cruelty, Chapter 5.
- 143.
“Our Engravings,” The Anti-Vivisectionist, July 31, 1880, 479.
- 144.
See Tickner, The Spectacle of Women; Mayhall, The Militant Suffrage Movement.
- 145.
See “Woman-Power and International Appeasement,” The Times, October 4, 1938, 17; Lind-af-Hageby, Mountain Meditations and Some Subjects of the Day and the War.
- 146.
On the cooperation between the two, see The Theosophist, June 1908, 16; December 1909, 59, 280–281.
- 147.
Lind-af-Hageby, “To My Friends in the Anti-Vivisection Cause.”
- 148.
For more on the Brown Dog controversy, see Mason, The Brown Dog Affair; Lansbury, The Old Brown Dog; Li, “The Radicalization of Strategy of the British Anti-Vivisection Movement in the ‘Brown Dog’ Affair.”
- 149.
“Bayliss vs. Coleridge,” Animals’ Guardian, December 1903, 144.
- 150.
On the rise of the popular press in the late nineteenth century, see Wiener, Papers for the Millions; Jones, Powers of the Press.
- 151.
Mason, The Brown Dog Affair, 18.
- 152.
“The Brown Dog,” The Times, January 11, 1908, 6.
- 153.
Minutes of Proceedings of the Council of the Metropolitan Borough of Battersea, March 9, 1910, 439–440, held at Battersea Library.
- 154.
See the newspapers clippings collected in Battersea Scraps, Battersea Library.
- 155.
Willis, “Unmasking Immorality,” 217. For more on the RDS, see Bates, Anti-vivisection and the Profession of Medicine in Britain, Chapter 6.
- 156.
See Thompson, “Pictorial Lies?”; Tickner, The Spectacle of Women.
- 157.
For a more comprehensive treatment of animal protection campaigns’ visual aspect, see Kean, Animal Rights.
- 158.
Minutes of the Research Defence Society, March 17, April 13, June 14, 1909, SA/RDS/C1, Wellcome Medical Library.
- 159.
See, e.g., Wallas, Human Nature in Politics; “Anti-Vivisection Processions,” The Times, July 9, 1909, 4.
- 160.
Minutes of the Research Defence Society, February 22, 1909, SA/RDS/C1, Wellcome Medical Library.
- 161.
“How to Get at the Classes and the Masses.” Abolitionist, August 15, 1900, 201; Tickner, The Spectacle of Women, 45–46.
- 162.
“The Anti-Vivisection Centre in Piccadilly,” Anti-Vivisection Review, September–October 1911, 48.
- 163.
“How to Get at the Classes and the Masses,” Abolitionist, August 15, 1900, 201.
- 164.
Minutes of the Research Defence Society, November 15, 1909; February 21, 1910; November 14, 1910; March 29, 1912; October 7, 1912, SA/RDS/C1, Wellcome Medical Library.
- 165.
Portia was a rich heiress and lady barrister in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice. The name was sometimes used for a female advocate.
- 166.
For press cuttings on the case and Lind-af-Hageby’s speeches in court, see “The Press and the Anti-Vivisection Libel Action,” Anti-Vivisection Review, nos. 3 & 4 (1913): 246–264; Lind-af-Hageby Libel Case GC/89, Wellcome Library, London.
- 167.
On the role of the outdoor platform in British political culture, see Lawrence, Electing Our Masters.
- 168.
See “Report of Parade and Mass Meeting at Pimlico,” dated April 1894, Lister Institute, SA/LIS/E.5, Wellcome Medical Library.
- 169.
Nearly sixty papers dealing with animal abuse of all forms were presented at the conference, including Salt’s paper on “The Rights of Animals” and another paper on “The Relation of the Animal Defense Movement to Other Ethical Movements”; see Lind-af-Hageby ed., The Animals’ Cause.
- 170.
“The Brown Dog Procession,” Anti-Vivisection Review 2 (1910–1911): 284.
- 171.
“The Anti-Vivisection Congress,” The Times, July 12, 1909, 7.
- 172.
“The Brown Dog Procession,” Anti-Vivisection Review 2 (1910–1911): 289.
- 173.
Ibid., 289.
- 174.
Lansbury, The Old Brown Dog, 1–25.
- 175.
On the rise of the pharmaceutical industry, see Church and Tansey, Burroughs Wellcome & Co.
- 176.
See Tansey, “Protection Against Dog Distemper and Dogs Protection Bills.”
- 177.
Carpenter, My Days and Dreams, 245.
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Periodicals
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Li, Ch. (2019). Mobilizing Political Traditions: We Want Justice, Not Charity. In: Mobilizing Traditions in the First Wave of the British Animal Defense Movement. The Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-52651-9_3
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