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From Climatology to Climate Science in the Twentieth Century

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The Palgrave Handbook of Climate History

Abstract

This chapter provides a short historical account of major developments and shifts in twentieth-century climate research. It explores a pattern of changes in the study of climate: from a geographical to a physical science; from an empirically focused study to a theory-based one; from the collection of measurements and descriptions to a search for causes and explanations; and from a bottom-up, local-scale practice to an increasingly top-down, global-scale science. The chapter pays particular attention to the roles of temporal and spatial scales, namely to the globalization of climate knowledge. A globalization of climate science and knowledge shifted attention away from local and regional human–climate interactions and the role of climate in human affairs to the investigation of purely physical processes, represented in differential equations.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Lehmann, 2015, 51.

  2. 2.

    e.g. Flohn, 1954, 11–13; Khrgian, 1970, 312.

  3. 3.

    Humboldt, 1845, 340.

  4. 4.

    Humboldt’s concept of climate was holistic in three ways: first, climate represented the whole of atmospheric phenomena at a defined location (synthesis of phenomena); second, it represented the whole of climates in different locations (synthesis in space); third, it focused on the relationship of humans and climate (Heymann, 2010a, 587). Humboldt’s ideas stood representative of “the basic goals of the nineteenth century climatologists … to understand the relationship between climate, vegetation, agriculture, and man” (Khrgian, 1970, 302).

  5. 5.

    Khrgian, 1970, 312.

  6. 6.

    Knobloch, 2007, 12.

  7. 7.

    Rupke, 2008, 175–202. Similarly, Aleksandr Ivanovich Voeikov, one of the most influential Russian climatologists and geographers, pursued an interest in large-scale climatic processes in his fundamental Climates of the Earth, Particularly of Russia (1884). E.g. Khrgian, 1970, 314–15; Oldfield, 2013, 517.

  8. 8.

    Coen, 2010, 843–46.

  9. 9.

    Hann, 1908, 3–4.

  10. 10.

    Köppen, 1895, 614.

  11. 11.

    Köppen, 1895, 619.

  12. 12.

    Köppen, 1895, 627.

  13. 13.

    Köppen and Geiger, 1936.

  14. 14.

    Köppen, 1918, 1923, 1936; Wilcock, 1968.

  15. 15.

    Werlen, 1993, 244; Bahrenberg, 1995, 152.

  16. 16.

    Köppen and Geiger, 1936.

  17. 17.

    Kutzbach, 1979.

  18. 18.

    Nebeker, 1995, 48.

  19. 19.

    Wagner et al., 1931, F1–F3.

  20. 20.

    Flohn, 1951, 201.

  21. 21.

    Scherhag, 1936.

  22. 22.

    Flohn, 1992, 19.

  23. 23.

    Flohn, 1950a, 142; Flohn, 1992, 7, 14.

  24. 24.

    Flohn, 1950a, 1950b; Petterssen, 1950.

  25. 25.

    Bergeron, 1930.

  26. 26.

    Flohn, 1951, 210.

  27. 27.

    Hettner, 1930; Flohn, 1950b.

  28. 28.

    Christaller, 1933; Kiesewetter, 2000, 79–90; Bobek and Schmithüsen, 1949.

  29. 29.

    Flohn, 1954, 11–12.

  30. 30.

    Malberg, 2007; interview with Günther Warnecke, November 26, 2015; interview with Heinz Fortak, November 27, 2015.

  31. 31.

    Krüger, 2013; Brönnimann, 2002; Imbrie and Imbrie, 1979, 19–57.

  32. 32.

    A notable exception is Brooks, 1922 and Brooks, 1949; see also Kenworthy, 2012.

  33. 33.

    Brückner, 1890; Lehmann, 2015.

  34. 34.

    Fleming, 1998.

  35. 35.

    Sörlin, 2011.

  36. 36.

    Callendar, 1938; Fleming, 2007, 65–77.

  37. 37.

    Callendar, 1938, 237.

  38. 38.

    Rudloff, 1967; Lamb, 1982.

  39. 39.

    Lehmann, 2015; Coen, 2010.

  40. 40.

    Bjerknes, 1904; Thorpe et al., 2003; Gramelsberger, 2009. Bjerknes provided a description of these equations in prose. Figure 38.1 gives six of the seven equations in the form elaborated by Lewis Fry Richardson and presented in Aspray, 1990, 124–27; see also Dahan Dalmedico, 2001, 398–99 and Nebeker, 1995, 66.

  41. 41.

    Friedman, 1989.

  42. 42.

    Friedman, 1989; Ellingsen, 2015.

  43. 43.

    Volkert, 1999; Gramelsberger, 2017.

  44. 44.

    Richardson, 1922; Lynch, 2005.

  45. 45.

    Harper, 2008; Nebeker, 1995.

  46. 46.

    Phillips, 1956, 154.

  47. 47.

    Quoted in Lewis, 1998, 52.

  48. 48.

    Persson, 2005a.

  49. 49.

    Persson, 2005b, 2005c.

  50. 50.

    Flohn, 1965, 385.

  51. 51.

    Craddock et al., 1962, 7.

  52. 52.

    Weart, 2008; Edwards, 2010.

  53. 53.

    Kellogg, 1971; Heymann, 2012.

  54. 54.

    Kellogg, 1971, 123.

  55. 55.

    Charney et al., 1979, xiii.

  56. 56.

    WMO, 1979, 714.

  57. 57.

    Hansen et al., 1981.

  58. 58.

    Heymann and Hundebøl, 2017.

  59. 59.

    Faust, 1960.

  60. 60.

    DeVorkin, 1992; Devorkin and Sanchez-Ron, 1996.

  61. 61.

    Henderson, 2013; Mason, 1975.

  62. 62.

    Dahan Dalmedico, 2010.

  63. 63.

    Dahan Dalmedico, 2010, 291.

  64. 64.

    Hulme, 2011.

  65. 65.

    Lovelock and Margulis, 1974, 2.

  66. 66.

    Lovelock and Margulis, 1974, 3.

  67. 67.

    Ruse, 2013; Schneider and Boston, 1992.

  68. 68.

    Bretherton, 1985.

  69. 69.

    Uhrqvist, 2015; Schellnhuber, 1998, 8.

  70. 70.

    Schellnhuber, 1999.

  71. 71.

    Schellnhuber, 1999, C20.

  72. 72.

    Fisher, 1988, 59.

  73. 73.

    Lenhard and Winsberg, 2010, 253.

  74. 74.

    Quoted in Fisher, 1988, 55.

  75. 75.

    Clifford, 2009, 359.

  76. 76.

    Achermann, forthcoming.

  77. 77.

    Jouzel, 2013, 2526; Martin-Nielsen, 2012, 2013.

  78. 78.

    Dansgaard, 1953.

  79. 79.

    Dansgaard, 1953, 469.

  80. 80.

    Dansgaard et al., 1969, 380.

  81. 81.

    Dansgaard, 2005, 69–74.

  82. 82.

    Broecker, 1987.

  83. 83.

    Edwards, 1999.

  84. 84.

    Edwards, 2010.

  85. 85.

    Agar, 2006; Sepkoski, 2013.

  86. 86.

    Lehmann, 2015, 69.

  87. 87.

    Heymann, 2010b.

  88. 88.

    Heymann, 2009, 2010a.

  89. 89.

    Heymann, 2010a, 2010b.

  90. 90.

    e.g. Shackley et al., 1998; Hulme, 2008.

  91. 91.

    Smith, 2007; see also Edwards, 2006.

  92. 92.

    Fleming, 2010.

  93. 93.

    Jouzel et al., 2007.

  94. 94.

    Jasanoff, 2001; Cosgrove, 2001.

  95. 95.

    Edwards, 2006.

  96. 96.

    Livingstone, 1993, 216–93.

  97. 97.

    Meadows et al., 1972.

  98. 98.

    Randall et al., 2003, 1548.

  99. 99.

    Guillemot, 2017, 13.

  100. 100.

    Holm et al., 2013.

  101. 101.

    Palsson et al., 2012.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Science Studies, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

    Matthias Heymann & Dania Achermann

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  1. Matthias Heymann
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  2. Dania Achermann
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  1. Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

    Sam White

  2. Institute of History, Oeschger Centre for Climate Change, Bern, Switzerland

    Christian Pfister

  3. Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

    Franz Mauelshagen

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Heymann, M., Achermann, D. (2018). From Climatology to Climate Science in the Twentieth Century. In: White, S., Pfister, C., Mauelshagen, F. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Climate History. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-43020-5_38

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-43020-5_38

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  • Online ISBN: 978-1-137-43020-5

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