Water/Ice: Assessment of Quality

Abstract

This chapter discusses about the quality assessment techniques of water and ice. Water and ice are an integral part of preprocessing and processing centers of food/fish industry. Therefore, an understanding of physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters of water is crucial.

Appendices

Appendices

3.1.1 Appendix 3.1 Drinking Water Quality Standard

3.1.1.1 Chemicals of Health Significance as Described by World Health Organization Guidelines (WHO) for Drinking Water Quality in Fourth Edition (2011)

Parameter	Unit	Latest WHO 4th edition (2011) guideline value
Acrylamide	μg/l	0.5
Alachlor	μg/l	20
Aldicarb	μg/l	10
Aldrin and dieldrin	μg/l	0.03
Antimony	mg/l	0.02
Arsenic	mg/l	0.01 (A,T)
Atrazine and its chloro-s-triazine metabolites	μg/l	100
Barium	mg/l	0.7
Benzene	μg/l	10
Benzo[a]pyrene	μg/l	0.7
Boron	mg/l	2.4
Bromate	μg/l	10 (A,T)
Bromodichloromethane	μg/l	60
Bromoform	μg/l	100
Cadmium	mg/l	0.003
Carbofuran	μg/l	7
Carbon tetrachloride	μg/l	4
Chlorate	μg/l	700 (D)
Chlordane	μg/l	0.2
Chlorine	mg/l	5 (C)
Chlorite	μg/l	700 (D)
Chloroform	μg/l	300
Chlorotoluron	μg/l	30
Chlorpyrifos	μg/l	30
Chromium	mg/l	0.05 (P)
Copper	mg/l	2
Cyanazine	μg/l	0.6
2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)	μg/l	30
2,4-DB (2,4-dichlorophenoxybutyric acid)	μg/l	90
DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane) and metabolites	μg/l	1
Di(2- ethylhexyl)phthalate	μg/l	8
Dibromoacetonitrile	μg/l	70
Dibromochloromethane	μg/l	100
1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane	μg/l	1
1,2-Dibromoethane	μg/l	0.4 (P)
Dichloroacetate	μg/l	50 (D)
Dichloroacetonitrile	μg/l	20 (P)
1,2-Dichlorobenzene	μg/l	1000 (C)
1,4-Dichlorobenzene	μg/l	300 (C)
1,2-Dichloroethane	μg/l	30
1,2-Dichloroethene	μg/l	50
Dichloromethane	μg/l	20
1,2-Dichloropropane	μg/l	40 (P)
1,3-Dichloropropene	μg/l	20
Dichlorprop	μg/l	100
Dimethoate	μg/l	6
1,4-Dioxane	μg/l	50
Edetic acid	μg/l	600
Endrin	μg/l	0.6
Epichlorohydrin	μg/l	0.4 (P)
Ethylbenzene	μg/l	300 (C)
Fenoprop	μg/l	9
Fluoride	mg/l	1.5
Hexachlorobutadiene	μg/l	0.6
Hydroxyatrazine	μg/l	200
Isoproturon	μg/l	9
Lead	mg/l	0.01 (A,T)
Lindane	μg/l	2
MCPA (4-(2-Methyl-4-chlorophenoxy) acetic acid)	μg/l	2
Mecoprop	μg/l	10
Mercury	mg/l	0.006
Methoxychlor	μg/l	20
Metolachlor	μg/l	10
Microcystin-LR	μg/l	1 (P)
Molinate	μg/l	6
Monochloramine	mg/l	3
Monochloroacetate	μg/l	20
Nickel	mg/l	0.07
Nitrate (as NO3−)	mg/l	50
Nitrilotriacetic acid	μg/l	200
Nitrite (as NO2 −)	mg/l	3
N-Nitrosodimethylamine	μg/l	0.1
Pendimethalin	μg/l	20
Pentachlorophenol	μg/l	9 (P)
Selenium	mg/l	0.04 (P)
Simazine	μg/l	2
Sodium dichloroisocyanurate (as cyanuric acid)	mg/l	40
Styrene	μg/l	20 (C)
2,4,5-T (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid)	μg/l	9
Terbuthylazine	μg/l	7
Tetrachloroethene	μg/l	40
Toluene	μg/l	700 (C)
Trichloroacetate	μg/l	200
Trichloroethene	μg/l	20 (P)
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol	μg/l	200 (C)
Trifluralin	μg/l	20
Trihalomethanes		The sum of the ratio of the concentration of each to its respective guideline value should not exceed 1
Uranium	mg/l	0.03 (P)
Vinyl chloride	μg/l	0.3
Xylenes	μg/l	500 (C)

1. According to WHO Drinking-water Quality 4th edition (2011)
2. A = provisional guideline value because calculated guideline value is below the achievable quantification level
3. C = concentrations of the substance at or below the health-based guideline value may affect the appearance, taste, or odor of the water, leading to consumer complaints
4. D = provisional guideline value because disinfection is likely to result in the guideline value being exceeded
5. P = provisional guideline value because of uncertainties in the health database
6. T = provisional guideline value because calculated guideline value is below the level that can be achieved through practical treatment methods, source protection, etc.

3.1.2 Appendix 3.2 – Drinking Water Quality Standard (Rodger et al. 2017)

Parameter	Limits
pH at 25 °C	8.2–8.8
Color	Not exceeding 5 Hazen units
Turbidity	Not exceeding 1.5 NTU
Iron as Fe	Not exceeding 0.1 mg/l
Manganese as Mn	Not exceeding 0.05 mg/l
Aluminum as Al	Not exceeding 0.10 mg/l
Free residual chlorine	0.5–1.5 mg/l
Fluoride as F	± 10% of nominal level (current 0.5 mg/l)
Taste and odor	Unobjectionable
Total coliforms and E.coli (no./100 mL)	Absent

3.1.3 Appendix 3.3 Drinking Water and Human Health Quality Criteria (IRMA 2018)

Metals/Metalloids	Units	Criteria	Source
Aluminum	μg/l	100	CAN, WHO
Antimony	μg/l	6	USA, CAN
Arsenic	μg/l	10	USA, CAN, AUS, EU, SAF, WHO
Barium	μg/l	1000	CAN, PER
Beryllium	μg/l	60	AUS
Cadmium	μg/l	5	USA, CAN, EU, SAF, CHI, PER
Chromium (Total)	μg/l	50	CAN, AUS, EU, WHO, SAF, CHI, PER
Copper	μg/l	1000	USA, CAN, AUS
Iron	μg/l	300	USA, CAN, AUS, SAF, CHI
Lead	μg/l	10	CAN, AUS, EU, SA, WHO, CHI, PER
Manganese	μg/l	50	USA, CAN, EU, SAF
Mercury	μg/l	1	CAN, AUS, EU, SAF, PER, PHI
Molybdenum	μg/l	50	AUS
Nickel	μg/l	20	AUS, EU, CHI, PHI
Radium 226/228	Bq/l	13.5	CAN, AUS
Selenium	μg/l	40	WHO, PER
Silver	μg/l	100	USA, AUS
Thallium	μg/l	2	USA
Uranium	μg/l	30	USA, WHO
Zinc	μg/l	3000	AUS, SAF, PER
Non-Metals/Ions	Units	Criteria	Source
Alkalinity (as CaCO3)	mg/l	–
Ammonia	mg/l	0.5	AUS, EU, PER
Chlorine	mg/l	5	AUS, WHO
Chloride	mg/l	250	AUS, USA, CAN
Cyanide (Free or WAD)	μg/l	80	AUS
Fluoride	mg/l	1.5	CAN, AUS, EU, WHO, PER
Hydrogen Sulfide (as S2−)	mg/l	∗
Nitrate (asNO3−)	mg/l	45	CAN, USA, CHI
Nitrite (asNO2−)	mg/l	3.3	CAN, USA, CHI
pH (standard units)	s.u.	6.5–8.5	USA, CAN, AUS, CHI, PHI
Sulfate	mg/l	400	Value between CAN, PER and USA, WHO, CHI
Total Dissolved Solids	mg/l	500	USA, CAN

1. Abbreviations for Sources/Standards: AUS Australia, CAN Canada, CHI China, EU European Union, IFC International Finance Corporation, PER Peru, PHI Philippines, SAF South Africa, USA United States, WHO World Health Organization of the United Nations
2. ∗A limit for hydrogen sulfide is not included because the methods available for analyses are presently well below the method reporting limit (the lowest amount of an analyte in a sample that can be quantitatively determined with stated, acceptable precision and accuracy under stated analytical conditions, i.e., the lower limit of quantitation). However, if there is some reason to believe that sulfide is present, then it should be measured

3.1.4 Appendix 3.4 EPA Standards for Toxin Metals, Pesticides, and Radioactive Components in Drinking Water

Contaminant	Maximum contaminant level (mg/L)
Acrylamide	–
Alachlor	0.002
Alpha/photon emitters	15 picocuries per liter (pCi/L)
Antimony	0.006
Arsenic	0.010
Asbestos (fibers >10 micrometers)	7 million fibers per liter (MFL)
Atrazine	0.003
Barium	2
Benzene	0.005
Benzo(a)pyrene (PAHs)	0.0002
Beryllium	0.004
Beta photon emitters	4 millirems per year
Bromate	0.010
Cadmium	0.005
Carbofuran	0.04
Carbon tetrachloride	0.005
Chloramines (as Cl2)	MRDL = 4.01
Chlordane	0.002
Chlorine (as Cl2)	Maximum residual disinfectant level = 4.0
Chlorine dioxide (as ClO2)	Maximum residual disinfectant level = 0.8
Chlorite	1.0
Chlorobenzene	0.1
Chromium (total)	0.1
Copper	Action level = 1.3
Cyanide (as free cyanide)	0.2
2,4-D	0.07
Dalapon	0.2
1,2-Dibromo-3chloropropane (DBCP)	0.0002
o-Dichlorobenzene	0.6
p-Dichlorobenzene	0.075
1,2-Dichloroethane	0.005
1,1-Dichloroethylene	0.007
cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene	0.07
trans-1,2,Dichloroethylene	0.1
Dichloromethane	0.005
1,2-Dichloropropane	0.005
Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate	0.4
Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate	0.006
Dinoseb	0.007
Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD)	0.00000003
Diquat	0.02
Endothall	0.1
Endrin	0.002
Epichlorohydrin	–
Ethylbenzene	0.7
Ethylene dibromide	0.00005
Fluoride	4.0
Glyphosate	0.7
Haloacetic acids (HAA5)	0.060
Heptachlor	0.0004
Heptachlor epoxide	0.0002
Hexachlorobenzene	0.001
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene	0.05
Lead	Action level = 0.015
Lindane	0.0002
Mercury (inorganic)	0.002
Methoxychlor	0.04
Oxamyl (Vydate)	0.2
Pentachlorophenol	0.001
Picloram	0.5
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)	0.0005
Radium 226 and radium 228 (combined)	5 pCi/L
Selenium	0.05
Simazine	0.004
Styrene	0.1
Tetrachloroethylene	0.005
Thallium	0.002
Toluene	1
Total Trihalomethanes (TTHMs)	0.080
Toxaphene	0.003
2,4,5-TP (Silvex)	0.05
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene	0.07
1,1,2-Trichloroethane	0.005
Trichloroethylene	0.005
Uranium	30 μg/l
Vinyl chloride	0.002

3.1.5 Appendix 3.5 Water Quality (Indian Standard Drinking Water Specification (BIS-10500: 1991))

Parameters	Desirable-tolerable	If no alternative source available, limit extended
Essential characteristics
Turbidity (NTU unit)	Less than 5	10
Color (Hazen scale)	Less than 5	25
Odor	Unobjectionable	−
Taste	Agreeable	−
pH	6.5–8.5	No relaxation
Total hardness (as CaCO3) mg/l, Max	300	600
Iron (as Fe) mg/l, Max	0.3	1.0
Chlorides (as Cl) mg/l, Max	250	1000
Residual, free chlorine, mg/l, Min	0.2	−
Fluoride (as F) mg/l, Max	1.0	1.5
Desirable characteristics
Dissolved solids mg/l, Max	500	2000
Calcium (as Ca) mg/l, Max	75	200
Magnesium (as Mg), mg/l, Max	30	100
Copper (as Cu) mg/l, Max	0.05	1.5
Manganese (as Mn) mg/l, Max	0.1	0.3
Sulfate (as SO4) mg/l, Max	200	400
Nitrate (as NO3) mg/l, Max	45	100
Phenolic compounds (as C6H5OH) mg/l, Max	0.001	0.002
Mercury (as Hg) mg/l, Max	0.001	No relaxation
Cadmium (as Cd), mg/l, Max	0.01	No relaxation
Selenium (as Se), Mg/l, Max	0.01	No relaxation
Arsenic (as As), mg/l, Max	0.05	No relaxation
Lead (as Pb), mg/l, Max	0.05	No relaxation
Zinc (as Zn), mg/l, Max	5	15
Anionic detergent (as MBAS) mg/l, Max	0.2	1.0
Chromium (as Cr6+) mg/l, Max	0.05	No relaxation
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (as PAH) g/l, Max	−	−
Mineral oil mg/l, Max	0.01	0.03
Pesticides mg/l, Max	Absent	0.001
Radioactive materials:
(a)Alpha emitters Bq/l, Max	−	−
(b)Beta emitters pci/l, Max	−	−
Alkalinity mg/l, Max	200	600
Aluminum (as Al), mg/l, Max	0.03	0.2
Boron, mg/l, Max	1	5
Bacteriological Standards
Water entering the distribution system: The coliform count in any sample of 100 ml should be zero. Any sample of the water entering the distribution system that does not conform to this standard calls for an immediate investigation into both the purification process and the method of sampling
Water in the distribution system should satisfy all the three criteria indicated below:
The E. coli count in 100 ml of any sample should be zero
Coliform organisms present in any sample should be less than 100 per ml
Coliform organisms should not be detectable in 100 ml of any two consecutive sample or 95% of the samples collected throughout the year. If coliform organisms are found, re-sampling should be done. The repeated presence of 1–10 coliform organisms in 100 ml or the appearance of higher numbers in any sample necessitates the investigation and removal of the source of pollution
Unpiped water supplied: If water is supplied by wells, bore holes, and springs, it should satisfy the following criteria:
Fecal coliforms should be zero per 100 ml of water
If fecal coliform occurs frequently and sanitary protection cannot be improved, an alternate source must be found, if possible
Emergency water supplies: Fecal and other coliform number per 100 ml of water should be zero. In case of failure to meet above guideline, boiled water should be used
Virological quality of drinking water
The drinking water should be free from virus, which causes diseases to the consumers. It is desirable to examine the raw water sources and treated water for the presence of virus. But it is costly and requires elaborate facilities. In general, virological examination is done for plague forming unit (PFU) of virus. If PFU is zero, water can be considered as safe to drink. However, large volumes of drinking water are required to detect virus (e.g., 10 liters per PFU level). In practice, 0.05 mg/1 of free residual chlorine for 1 h is sufficient to inactivate virus

3.1.6 Appendix 3.6 Different Types of Phytoplankton and Zooplanktons)