Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Review of the Literature

  • Chapter
Long-term effects of Learning English

  • 644 Accesses

Abstract

In this chapter, I will introduce the theories and practices of foreign language tutoring in elementary schools, mainly ELES (English learning in elementary school), at first focusing on one theory stemming from the historical work of Lenneberg (Biological foundation of language. Wiley, New York, 1967), which was soon widespread among researchers in the field of second language acquisition. After that, I will summarize some early studies conducted mostly in the West, highlighting the issues in those studies that are still controversial today, that is, the fundamental discussion of the child-adult differences in learning and their implications for foreign and second language acquisition. Following this, I will describe a wide spectrum of Japanese ELES studies. First, I will introduce studies which focus on learners’ linguistic variables. Until ELES was implemented in 2011 in all public schools, the majority of the studies were conducted at private, or government-aided Kenkyu (research and development), or Tokku (a special educational district) public schools. Then I will briefly review studies dealing with learners’ attitudinal and motivational variables. Finally, I examine the gaps in the literature covered and introduce the purpose of this study, which is followed by the presentation of my three research questions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    The Super English Language High School (SELHi) program was implemented during the years 2002–2009. Nationwide, 169 high schools were accepted (public 69 %, private 31 %), receiving government funding for a whole range of extended/advanced English curriculum for a 3-year research period.

  2. 2.

    Eiken Grade 5 test consists of, according to the authors, ten conversation completion questions, five dialogue content questions, and ten questions involving matching content with pictures, based on topics consisting of family, friends, school, hobbies, giving directions, introducing oneself, etc.

References

  • Benesse. (2009). Dai ikkai chuggako eigo ni kansuru kihon chosa (kyoin chosa) sokuho ban. [The first basic survey of junior high school English (teacher survey) Q.E.]. Tokyo: Benesse Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benesse Cooperation. (2010). Dai 2 kai shougakko eigo ni kansuru kihon chosa [kyoin chosa] (The second basic survey of ELES [teacher survey]). http://berd.benesse.jp/global/research/detail1.php?id=3179. Accessed 29 Sept 2014.

  • Bley-Vroman, R. (1988). The fundamental character of foreign language learning. In W. Rutherford & M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Grammar and second language teaching: A book of readings (pp. 19–30). New York: Newbury House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bley-Vroman, R. (2009). The evolving context of the fundamental difference hypothesis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 31(2), 175–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burstall, C. (1975). Primary French in the balance. Educational Research, 17, 193–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butler, Y. G. (2005). Shougakkou eigo: Hyouka wo meguru mondai [English at the elementary school level: Issues on assessment and evaluation]. JASTEC Journal, 24, 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, Y. G., & Takeuchi, A. (2006). Shougakkou eigo katudo ni okeru hyoka: Hyouka wo meguru mondai. Jido Eiken (BRONZE) wo tsukatta kokoromi [Evaluation of English activities at Japanese elementary schools: An examination based on the Junior STEP BRONZE Test]. JASTEC Journal, 25, 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canh, L. V., & Chi, D. T. M. (2012). Teacher preparation for primary school English education: A case of Vietnam. In B. Spolsky & Y.-i. Moon (Eds.), Primary school English-language education in Asia: From policy to practice (pp. 106–128). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cenoz, J. (2003). The influence of age on the acquisition of English: General proficiency, attitudes and code mixing. In M. P. Garcia Mayo & M. L. Garcia Lecumberri (Eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language (pp. 77–93). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, V. W. (2006). Innovations in English education for Asia’s new century. Conference proceedings. Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University Polyglossia, 11, 13–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, C. (2012). Planning and implementation of elementary school English education in Taiwan. In B. Spolsky & Y. Moon (Eds.), Primary school English-language education in Asia (pp. 129–143). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curreira, J. M. (2006). Nihon no shogakusei no eigogakushu ni eikyo wo ataeru joi yoin no hattatsuteki keiko to seisa [Developmental trends and gender differences in affective variables influencing English as a foreign language learning among Japanese elementary students]. JASTEC Journal, 25, 57–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darnell, D. K. (1968). The development of an English language proficiency test using a closentropy procedure. ERIC ED, 024039.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dekeyser, R. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22(4), 499–533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dekeyser, R. (2012). Age effects in second language learning. In S. M. Gass & A. Machey (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 442–460). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Djigunovich, J. M. (1995). Attitudes of young foreign-language learners: A follow-up study. In M. Vilke (Ed.), Children and foreign languages (pp. 16–33). Zagreb: University of Zagreb.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching, 31, 117–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and researching motivation. Harlow: Pearson Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Durette, R. (1972). A five-year FLES report. Modern Language Journal, 56, 23–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fennelly, M. G., Luxton, R., & Fukuda, S. T. (2014). The influence of foreign language activity classes in elementary school on the listening ability of first-year Junior High School students. JASTEC Bulletin, 33, 39–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivations. London: Edward Arnold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, R., & Lambert, W. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley: Newbury House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasegawa, S. (2013). Shougakkou Eigo no kaishi nenrei to shidoukeitai no oyobosu koka [The effects of teaching style and initial grade of instruction in elementary school English education]. JES Journal, 13, 163–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hojo, R., & Matsuzaki, K. (2005). Kouritsu shougakkou ni okeru eigo katsudo ni kansuru ishiki chosa [An analysis of questionnaire on ELES at public elementary schools]. JASTEC Journal, 24, 71–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, A. (1989). Testing for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jang, E. E., Dunlop, M., Wagner, M., Kim, Y., & Gu, Z. (2013). Elementary school ELLs’ reading skill profiles using cognitive diagnosis modeling: Roles of length of residence and home language environment. Language Learning, 63(3), 400–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • JASTEC Kansai Project Team. (2007). Shougakko eigo gakushu keikensha no tsuiseki chosa to shouchugakkou eigo kyouiku eno shisa [A follow-up study of ELES experienced students and its implication on the future English instruction at elementary school and junior high school]. Kinki University Language Education Bulletin, 7(2), 123–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • JASTEC Kansai Project Team. (2008). Chugakkou nyugaku izen no eigo gakushu keikensha ga daigakusei no jouimen ni oyobosu eikyo [The influence of learning English at an early stage on university students’ affective factors]. JASTEC Journal, 27, 25–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • JASTEC Project Team. (1986). Soki eigo gakushusha no tsuiseki chousa: Dai ippou [A follow-up study on the effects of early English learning: Report I]. JASTEC Journal, 5, 48–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • JASTEC Project Team. (1987). Soki eigo gakushusha no tsuiseki chousa: Dai ni hou [A follow-up study on the effects of early English learning: Report II]. JASTEC Journal, 6, 3–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • JASTEC Project Team. (1988). Soki eigo gakushusha no tsuiseki chousa: Dai san pou [A follow-up study on the effects of early English learning: Report III]. JASTEC Journal, 7, 43–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • JASTEC Project Team. (1989). Soki eigo gakushusha no tsuiseki chousa: Dai yon hou [A follow-up study on the effects of early English learning: Report IV]. JASTEC Journal, 8, 3–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • JASTEC Project Team. (1990). Gakushu kaishi nenrei ga gengo shutoku ni oyobosu eikyo: Dai ippou [A study investigating the effect of the age of onset on the language learning: Report I]. JASTEC Journal, 9, 3–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • JASTEC Project Team. (1991). Gakushu kaishi nenrei ga gengo shutoku ni oyobosu eikyo: Dai ni hou [A study investigating the effect of the age of onset on the language learning: Report II]. JASTEC Journal, 10, 15–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • JASTEC Project Team. (1992). Gakushu kaishi nenrei ga gengo shutoku ni oyobosu eikyo: Dai san pou [A study investigating the effect of the age of onset on the language learning: Report III]. JASTEC Journal, 11, 3–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • JASTEC Project Team. (1993). Gakushu kaishi nenrei ga gengo shutoku ni oyobosu eikyo: Dai yon hou [A study investigating the effect of the age of onset on the language learning: Report IV]. JASTEC Journal, 12, 27–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • JASTEC Project Team. (1994). Soki eigo gakushu ga gakushusha no eigo oyobi gaikokugo gakushu ni okeru taido to doki ni oyobosu eikyo [The effects of English learning at an early stage on attitudes and motivation toward English and foreign language]. JASTEC Journal, 13, 35–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, R. (2000). Context-sensitive assessment of modern language in primary (elementary) and early secondary education: Scotland and the European experience. Language Testing, 17(2), 123–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahl, P., & Knebler, U. (1996). English in der Grundschule, und dann? Evaluation des Hamburger Schulversuchs [English at primary school: What next? Evaluation of the Hamburg pilot scheme]. Berlin: Cornelsen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kajiro, T. (2010). The efficacy of studying English before Junior High School. Database for Grant in Aid for Scientific Research. https://kaken.nii.ac.jp/pdf/2010/seika/jsps/32634/19520507seika.pdf. Accessed 29 Sept 2014.

  • Kanamori, T. (2006). Shougakusei izen no eigogakushu keiken no eikyo. [The effect of English learning experience prior to Junior High School] (GTEC 2006 report, pp. 48–60). Okayama: Benesse.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kang, H. D. (2012). Primary school English education in Korea: From policy to practice. In B. Spolsky & Y. Moon (Eds.), Primary school English-language education in Asia (pp. 59–82). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krashen, S., Long, M., & Scarcella, R. (1979). Age, rate and eventual attainment in second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 13, 573–578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kwon, O. R. 2006. Impacts and effects of ten years of elementary school English education in Korea (GTEC 2006 report, pp. 78–85). Okayama: Benesse.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen-Hall, J. (2008). Weighing the benefits of studying a foreign language at a younger starting age in a minimal input situation. Second Language Research, 21(1), 35–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lecumberri, M. L. G., & Gallardo, F. (2003). English FL sounds in school learners of different ages. In M. P. Garcia Mayo & M. L. Garcia Lecumberri (Eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language (pp. 115–135). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological foundation of language. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lightbown, P. M. (2000). Classroom second language acquisition research and second language teaching. Applied Linguistics, 21, 431–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Long, M. (1990). Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matsukawa, R. (1997). Shogakko ni eigo ga yatte kita [English visits elementary schools]. Tokyo: Apurikotto.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matsumiya, S. (2013). Shougakko gaikokugo katsudo tanto kyoin no jyugo sido fuan ni kakawaru kenkyu (A study of teacher anxiety of teaching foreign language activity). The Bulletin of Kansai University of Foreign Studies, 97, 321–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matsumoto, M. (2013). T2 ni gakusei borantia wo donyu shita shougakko gaikokugo kastudo no koka to kadai (Issues and effectiveness of elementary school foreign language activities with student teachers) VISO, 43, 69–79. https://klc.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=pages_view_mainandactive_action=repository_view_main_item_detailanditem_id=248anditem_no=1andpage_id=13andblock_id=17. Accessed 29 Sept 2014.

  • Mayer, M. (1969). Frog, where are you? New York: Dial Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Megumi, T., Yokokawa, H., & Miura, I. (1996). Soki eigo gakushu keikensha no chukou ni okeru seiseki [High school grades in early learners of English]. JASTEC Journal, 15, 27–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • MEXT. (2001). Eigo gakushu no tebiki (The Manual for English learning). Tokyo: Kairyudo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mio, H., & Kitsudo, H. (2004). Ikutsu shougakko ni okeru eigo no kouka ni kansuru chousa [Research on the effectiveness of English instruction at Ikutsu elementary school]. JASTEC Journal, 23, 77–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montrul, S. A. (2009). Reexamining the fundamental difference hypothesis: What can early bilinguals tell us? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 31(2), 225–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mora, J. C. (2006). Age effect on oral fluency development. In C. Munoz (Ed.), Age and the rate of foreign language learning (pp. 65–88). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munoz, C. (2006). The effects of age on foreign language learning: The BAF project. In C. Munoz (Ed.), Age and the rate of foreign language learning (pp. 1–40). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munoz, C., & Llanes, A. (2014). Study abroad and changes in degree of foreign accent in children and adults. The Modern Language Journal, 98(1), 432–449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naito, T. (2005). Chugaku nyugaku izen no eigo gakushu ni kansuru anketo oyobi kouka no bunseki; Koukousei no baai [Analysis on the questionnaire and the effects of English learning in pre-secondary education. In the case of high school students]. Chubu Chiku Eigo Kyouiku Gakkai Kiyo, 35, 47–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naoyama, Y. (2001). Moji no yomi shido wo toriireta shogakko no Eigo katsudo [English activities in an elementary school which introduced the instruction of English letters]. STEP Bulletin, 13, 156–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • NIEPR. (2009). Shogakko ni okeru eigo kyoiku no arikata ni kansuru chousa kenkyu: kenkyu hokoku kai siryo [A Research investigating the ideal nature of English education at elementary school: A summary report]. Tokyo: National Institute for Educational Policy Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nishida, R. (2013). Empirical studies of affective variables and motivational changes among Japanese elementary school EFL learners. Tokyo: Kinseido.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oller, J., & Nagato, N. (1974). The long-term effects of FLES: An experiment. Modern Language Journal, 58, 15–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paradis, M. (2009). Declarative and procedural determinants of second languages. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Patkowski, M. (1980). The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. Language Learning, 30, 449–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). Speech and brain mechanisms. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saksith Saiyasombut and Siam Voices. (2012).Thai education failures – Part 4: Dismal English-language training. Asian correspondent com, 2012.3.21. http://asiancorrespondent.com/78647/thai-education-failures-part-4-dismal-english-language-education/. Accessed 29 Sept 2014.

  • Schimd, M. S., Gilbers, S., & Nota, A. (2014). Ultimate attainment in late second language acquisition: Phonetic and grammatical challenges in advanced Dutch-English bilingualism. Second Language Research, 30(2), 129–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scovel, T. (1988). A time to speak: A psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human language. Rowley: Newbury House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Service, E., Yli-Kaitala, H., Maury, S., & Kim, J. (2014). Adult’s and 8-year-olds’ learning in foreign word repetition task: Similar and different. Language Learning, 64(2), 215–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shinohara, Y. (1999). Souki eigo kyouiku ga hatsuon ni oyobosu koka nit suite [A study of the effect of ELES on the pronunciation]. JASTEC Journal, 18, 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shirahata, T. (2002). Kenkyu kaihatsukou de eigo ni sesshita jidou no eigo nouryoku chosa [A research investigating English proficiency of the students who were exposed to English at a kenkyu elementary school]. Shizuoka University Educational Bulletin, 33, 195–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shizuka, T. (2007). Effects of learning English in elementary school days on the proficiency of, and the attitude toward, the language in high school years. JACET Journal, 45, 31–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, D. (1989). Second language acquisition: The age factor. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, D., & Lyngel, Z. (1995). The age factor in second language acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, D., & Ryan, L. (2004). Second language acquisition: The age factor (2nd ed.). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takada, T. (2003). Souki eigo kyouiku keikensha to mikeikensha no chukangengo no bunseki [An analysis of interlanguage of those who have experienced English learning at elementary schools and whose who did not.]. STEP Bulletin, 15, 159–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takada, T. (2004). The listening proficiency Elementary School (ES) and Junior High School (JHS) intend to develop: What teachers should know to bridge the gap between ES and JHS programs. Annual Review of English Language Education in Japan, 15, 109–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takagi, A. (2003a). The effects of language instruction at an early stage on junior high school, high school, and university students’ motivation. Annual Review of English Language Education in Japan, 14, 81–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takagi, A. (2003b). Souki gengo gakushu keiken ga eigo gakushu doukizuke ni oyobosu eikyo [The effect of ELES on the motivation of English language learning]. JASTEC Journal, 22, 47–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thu, T. T. T., & Baldauf, R. B., Jr. (2007). Demotivation: Understanding resistance to English language learners: The case of Vietnamese students. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 4(1), 79–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomita, Y., Shiina, K., Shirahata, T., & Takahashi, M. (2008). Kyouiku tokubetsuku ni okeru eigo kyouiku no jittai chousa [The results of a survey about English education in the “Tokku” in Japan]. JASTEC Journal, 27, 1–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uematsu, S. (2006). Eigo gakushu to rinkaiki [English language learning and the critical period]. Tokyo: Shohakusha.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, M. T. (2004). Contributions of memory circuits to language: The declarative/procedural model. Cognition, 92, 231–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, X. (2012). Primary English education in China: Review and reflection. In B. Spolsky & Y.-i. Moon (Eds.), Primary school English-language education in Asia: From policy to practice (pp. 1–22). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yanagi, Y., & Takahashi, M. (2001). Chuggako nyugaku izennno eigo gakushu no eikyo: Gakushusha ni yoru gyoka [On the effect of English learning in pre-secondary education: The evaluation by the learners]. Chubu Chiku Eigo Kyoiku Gakkai Kiyo, 31, 21–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yatsuka, N. (2000). Souki eigo kyouiku ga onsoshikibetsu nouryoku to eigo gakushu ni taisuru taido ni oyobosu eikyo [Effects of early English learning on phoneme perception and attitude to learning English by Japanese high school and college students]. JASTEC Journal, 19, 73–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yukina, K. (2002). Eigo kishusha to eigo mishusha no chuggako deno eigoryoku to chino no soukan: shogakko dankai deno eigo kyoiku no hitsuyo sei [The correlation between ELES Experienced students and Non-experienced students at the junior high school stage: The investigation of the necessity of ELES]. Waseda Kyoiku Hyoron, 15(1), 95–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zou, W. C. (2011). On the theory, methods and problems of foreign language policy studies in China. Foreign Languages in China, 8(4), 26–30.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Graduate School of Foreign Language, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kyoto, Japan

    Shigeo Uematsu

Authors
  1. Shigeo Uematsu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer Science+Business Media Singapore

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Uematsu, S. (2015). Review of the Literature. In: Long-term effects of Learning English. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-493-1_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation