1 Introduction

Issues on athletes’ mental toughness in sporting performance are popular topic among general public [22]. People believe that mental toughness is crucial in order to achieve excellent sporting performance. Supporting the idea, Norris [23] highlighted that sport practitioners, coaches, athletes and sport fans all around the world to acknowledge the importance of mental toughness in sporting performance. However, despite the awareness on the issues, mental toughness remains a relatively growing area of sport psychology research.

1.1 Mental Toughness

Middleton et al. [22] claimed that “mental toughness is remaining inadequately defined and conceptualize” [p. 2]. Middleton et al. [23] defined mental toughness as a consistency or persistency to achieve the goal despite in the tough, pressure or difficult situation. Expanding the definition, Middleton et al. [22] also stated that mental toughness is “unshakeable perseverance and conviction toward some goals despite pressure or adversity” [p. 1]. Supporting the idea, Gucciardi et al. [9] described mental toughness as a superior mental quality of an athletes and it is one of the important psychological constructs for performance in athletics context.

In Malaysia, issues on athletes’ mental toughness are not rare to be heard. As reported in our local newspaper (Harian Metro 2011), National Sport Council (NSC) and National Sport Institute (NSI) are working hard to improve Malaysian athletes’ tough character for Olympics London 2012. Based on these scenarios, arguably mental toughness today is becoming a focus by the sports practitioners in sporting performance. Several previous researchers also stated that in achieving excellent sporting performance, athletes could not only rely on skills and strategies, but also must be complemented with excellent emotionally, spiritually and psychologically skills (Loehr 14; [9, 23, 22].

In the fields of sport psychology, mental toughness is one of the character buildings that have been focused by NSC and NSI particularly among youth athletes. Numerous programs have been organized by NSC and NSI with the purpose of improving youth athletes’ mental toughness. Interestingly, several programs were conducted based on outdoor adventure program. For an example, NSC has organized several outdoor adventure camps aiming at developing youth athletes’ mental toughness. However, there is lack of studies relating outdoor adventure program and athletes’ mental toughness.

1.2 Outdoor Adventure

On the other hand, outdoor adventure programs are greatly participated by peoples all around the world including athletes (Simmons 18). Virden (21) defined outdoor recreation as a “recreation behavior, activities and experiences that occur or depend on natural setting” [p. 310].

Specific to the study, Priest and Gass [22] and Virden (2006) stated that the use of outdoor for recreation is called outdoor recreation pursuit or human powered outdoor adventure. They also defined outdoor adventure as self-propelled activities performed in outdoor settings, and involved the elements of: (1) danger; (2) risk taking; (3) challenge; (4) sensation seeking; (5) achievement; (6) competence; and (7) one’s skills.

Over decades, outdoor recreation researchers found recreation programs such as outdoor adventure camps effect positively on participants’ psychological aspects (e.g., [2, 5–9, 23–23]; Ewert 6; Allain 2006). Most of the studies focused on common psychological constructs such as: (1) self esteem; (2) self confidence; (3) team cohesion; (4) leadership; (5) self actualization; (4) team trust; (5) communication; and (6) self efficacy.

1.3 Intervention of Outdoor Adventure in Enhancing Athletes’ Mental Toughness

The researcher found relationship between outdoor adventure and mental toughness definitions. In brief, outdoor adventure is commonly defined as the act of engaging in any adventure activities that performed in outdoor setting and involve element of challenge, risk, pressure, competence and one’s skill.

On the other side, mental toughness commonly defined as the ability to stay calm despite in a tough, pressure or difficult situation. Several definitions also stressed that mental toughness exist in any kind of difficulties, hardiness or tough situation [9, 22]. By reviewing both definitions, the researcher believed that the outdoor adventure program able to produces physical and mental pressures as well the activities exposed participants to the rough and open weather condition. As a result, mental toughness can be trained and improves in outdoor adventure program.

Unfortunately, there is an absence of study that specifically relates to mental toughness and outdoor adventure program. Previous studies on mental toughness were conducted based on sport itself. In addition, it is also difficult to find a study that specifically examines the effects of outdoor adventure program on participants’ mental toughness. After all, the effectiveness of outdoor adventure program on participants’ mental toughness is remains to be questioned.

2 Method

2.1 Subject

The study recruited 200 first year students of Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) from Pahang and Perlis campus (intake of November—March 2010/2011). Most of the students are athletes and aged in the range of 17–30 years old. The total of 200 students was divided into two groups: experimental groups and the control group. The experimental group was comprised of second semester students (n = 100), while the control group was among first semester students (n = 100).

2.2 Setting

The 7 days program in natural setting involved several outdoor adventure activities included land-based (e.g., jungle trekking, navigation, survival, camp craft, initiative games, and orienteering) and water-based (e.g., kayak expedition, water confidence and water rescue). The camp venues were at Tasik Chenderoh, Perak and Pulau Langkawi, Kedah. Similarly, both venues had a campsite area which was flat and grassy. The campsite had basic infrastructure such as halls, toilets and A-frame cabin. But there were no built-in facilities for outdoor activities and most of the activities were conducted and engaged with natural setting. The SPS133’s final camp exposed students to variety of outdoor adventure activities and challenges. Participation in all activities was compulsory. The activity rotation schedule was developed as to give every participants opportunity to experience the activities.

2.3 Instrumentation

The study utilized psychology performance inventory (PPI: Loehr 1986) as study instrument. The questionnaire was divided into two sections (A–B). Section A has a set of questions on student’s demographic. Section B has a psychology performance inventory (PPI: Loehr 1986) that was used for analyzing participants’ mental toughness.

2.3.1 Data Analysis

The data collected from the questionnaires was analyzed using paired sample t test and independent t test (pre- and post-test). All data gathered was statistically analyzed as to answer the research questions in quantitative manner.

3 Findings

The following sections describe the overall effect of the camp based on paired Sample t test analysis and followed by independent t test analysis to examine the participants’ mental toughness scores at pre- and post-test (Table 1).

Table 1 Overall scores: paired sample t test
Full size table

Overall, a paired sample t test analysis suggested the Outdoor Recreation (SPS133) Final Camp 2011 in this study had recorded statistically significant effects on the improvement of mental toughness of the experimental group.

Table 1 presents the result from the paired sample t test comparing the experimental group’s mental toughness with that of control group. The experimental group recorded statistically significant changes in their mental toughness score (t (1, 264) = −4.050, p = 0.001). Before the camp, their mean score was 147.738, and after the camp, the mean score was significantly increased to 152.118.

The control group did not record any statistically significant changes in their mental toughness score (t (1, 99) = −0.853, p = 0.396). At pre-test, their mean score was 141.859, and at the post-test, their mean score was 143.569. Even though mean score was slightly increased, but the increase was not statistically significant.

As to further confirm these findings, independent t test analyses were conducted to examine the score of experimental and control group for pre-test and post-test (Table 2).

Table 2 Pre- and post-test: independent t test
Full size table

Table 2 showed that there were statistically significant differences for pre-test scores (t* (1, 264) = 2.777, p = 0.006) between the experimental and control groups. In essence, the experimental group recorded higher mental toughness scores for pre-test than control group which suggested that experimental group already had greater mental toughness level than control group.

On the post-test, there were also statistically significant differences (t (1, 264) = 4.063, p = 0.001) that were recorded between the experimental and control groups. Specifically, the scores differences between both groups had widened. After the completion of the camp, experimental group’ mental toughness score was increased higher than that of the control group.

4 Conclusion

4.1 Overall Findings

Overall, there were evidences that Outdoor Recreation (SPS133) Final Camp 2011 had resulted on the improvement of participants’ mental toughness scores. After the completion of the camps, paired sample t test analyses indicated that the experimental group had recorded statistically significant improvement on their mental toughness scores (p = 0.001). In contrast, the control group did not record any statistically significant changes in their mental toughness scores (p = 0.396).

In details of the findings, analyses on the pre-test results showed that the experimental group exhibited higher mental toughness scores (\( \bar{x} = { 147}. 7 3 8 \)) than the control group (\( \bar{x} = 1 4 1. 8 5 9 \)).

By the end of the SPS133 camp, the t test analyses showed that the experimental group’s score remained higher (\( \bar{x} = 152.118 \)) than the control group (\( \bar{x} = 1 4 3. 5 6 9 \)). There was statistically significant improvement on the experimental group’ mental toughness scores (p = 0.001).

Based on the findings, the researcher suggests that the SPS133 camp had significant influences on experimental group’s mental toughness improvement. These outcomes were in line with Gatzemann et al. [9] and Pasarelli et al. [16] studies. They found the intervention of outdoor adventure program contributes toward positives psychological outcomes.

5 Discussion

In focus to the study, the researcher proposed several plausible reasons contributing significant improvement in mental toughness development, such as the influence of: (1) camp’s activities and (2) camp’s environment. To discuss these ideas in further detail, the researcher elaborated each factors separately.

5.1 Influence of Camp’s Activities

Overall, this recent study’s findings strongly supported the effectiveness of the camp in enhancing experimental group’ mental toughness. Firstly, the study proposed that engagement in outdoor adventure activities during the camp had significantly influenced participants’ mental toughness improvement. The camp provided participants real-life exposure to several outdoor adventure activities (e.g., survival, kayaking, jungle trekking, camp craft) in challenging natural settings.

Based on the researchers’ observation, all of the respondents participated actively in each of camp’s activities. Participation in camp activities seems to foster participants’ positives development on several aspects of: (1) psychological (e.g., self confidence, self esteem, mental toughness); (2) physical (e.g., fitness, improve cardiovascular, strength); and (3) social (e.g., communication, unity, trust, cohesion). Previous studies also revealed the benefits of engaging in outdoor adventure activities on the improvement of psychological, physical and socio-psychological aspects ([2, 9, 23–23]; Allain 2006; Tracey et al. 2008).

Moreover, the intensive camp’s schedule also acted as pressures to the participants. During the camp, each group participated in two to three activities per day. Each of the activity’s duration was about two to three hours (except for survival, 12 h). This activities were conducted continuously while to ensure the participant have minimal rest time during the intensive camp. At night, they had limited time to sleep because they were assigned to night watch duty around the campsite and preparing a communal breakfast in rotation. As a result, participants tended to be sleepless, exhausted and fatigue. The researcher proposed that participant’s adaptations to these extensive pressures might have contributed to the improvement of their mental toughness. Supporting the idea, Middleton et al. [22] found that mental toughness is a result of individual response to adversity including high level physical effort or pressure.

Through observation, each camp’s activity might have different effects on participants’ mental toughness. For example, activity such as survival (12 h), kayaking (approximately 20 km) and jungle trekking seemed to have extra contributions toward the improvement. These kinds of activities require higher physical and mental pressures if compared to other short-duration physical activities. In fact, Connole [4] and Gucciardi et al. [9] claimed different type of activities or sports demanded level different of mental toughness.

Based on these arguments, the researcher proposed that different type of adventure activities may have different effects on the improvement of mental toughness. Therefore, camp’s coordinator should be creative in programing their camp’s activities in order to maximize the improvement of mental toughness.

5.2 Influence of Camp’s Environment’

Secondly, the researchers believe the camp’s environment might exert some influences on the improvement of participants’ mental toughness. The camp utilized minimum technological intervention thus encouraged the participants to experience traditional camping method, such as cooking in a group, making a fire and building groups’ shelter. During the camp period, this traditional camping method was believed to create a challenging situation especially when the participants were mostly accustomed to technology-dependent lifestyles. According to Gucciardi et al. [23], challenging situation does influence the development of mental toughness. Ability to overcome these challenging situations seemed to contribute in participants’ mental toughness enhancement.

Moreover, participants were exposed to direct contact with the open weather and the natural environment. During the camp, participants experienced challenging environment such as heavy rain and high temperatures (up to 38 °C). These situations heightened the challenges, and at the same time, increase the element of risk during the camp. These challenging situations might have influence on the improvement of participants’ mental toughness. Researcher’s idea was supported by Bull et al. [3]. The study proposed environmental influence as the most important factor in the development of mental toughness. Based on this claim, the researcher believed challenging environment had contributed positively on individual’ mental toughness development.

However, it is also important to note that the improvement of mental toughness (with regard to environmental influences) is not limited to remote and natural setting. Some outdoor adventure programs were also organized indoors or in urban areas. For example, adventure activities such as ropes courses and wall climbing can be held in the indoor setting and yielded similar outcome in mental toughness improvement ([1]; Taylor et al. 1989).

These contrasting findings of indoor versus outdoor and nature versus urban setting had challenged the researcher’s claim on the influence of open environment setting on mental toughness since closed environmental setting also produced the same result. Eventually, the researcher strongly pointed that challenging outdoor environment has greater potential to influences participants’ mental toughness improvement than indoor setting. This claim was based on a study Bull et al. [3], which stated that challenging environment as the most influential factor to the development of mental toughness. The ways participants responded and coped with challenging environment was believed to greatly influence their mental toughness improvement.