Abstract
A newly identified coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, has caused a worldwide pandemic of respiratory illness, called COVID-19, culminating in major global morbidity and mortality. Due to its fundamental role in regulating immune homeostasis, it is critical to understand human microbiota to broaden our understanding of COVID-19. Furthermore, perturbation to the composition and function of the human microbiota has also been linked to a variety of risk factors for respiratory diseases, which has resulted in concomitant interest in manipulating the microbiome for therapeutic effects. Several studies have demonstrated the role of human microbiota in influencing viral infections, however the possible connection between microbiome and COVID-19 is not well understood. Therefore, understanding of the precise role of the human microbiota in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 disease is necessary prior to determine if manipulation of microbiota represents a novel treatment therapy for COVID-19. This article will explore the evidence that implicates the human microbiome as a contributing factor to the pathogenesis, severity, and disease course of COVID-19, and speculate about the potential of using human microbiota as a therapeutic avenue against COVID-19. These insights would also improve our knowledge to develop better personalized therapeutic strategies for COVID-19 and other diseases caused by respiratory viruses.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abelenda-Alonso G, Padulles A, Rombauts A, Gudiol C, Pujol M, Alvarez-Pouso C, Jodar R, Carratala J (2020) Antibiotic prescription during the COVID-19 pandemic: a biphasic pattern. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 41(11):1371–1372. https://doi.org/10.1017/ice.2020.381
Abreu NA, Nagalingam NA, Song Y, Roediger FC, Pletcher SD, Goldberg AN, Lynch SV (2012) Sinus microbiome diversity depletion and Corynebacterium tuberculostearicum enrichment mediates rhinosinusitis. Sci Transl Med 4(151):151ra124. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3003783
Abt MC, Osborne LC, Monticelli LA, Doering TA, Alenghat T, Sonnenberg GF, Paley MA, Antenus M, Williams KL, Erikson J, Wherry EJ, Artis D (2012) Commensal bacteria calibrate the activation threshold of innate antiviral immunity. Immunity 37(1):158–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2012.04.011
Allen EK, Koeppel AF, Hendley JO, Turner SD, Winther B, Sale MM (2014) Characterization of the nasopharyngeal microbiota in health and during rhinovirus challenge. Microbiome 2:22. https://doi.org/10.1186/2049-2618-2-22
Amabebe E, Robert FO, Agbalalah T, Orubu ESF (2020) Microbial dysbiosis-induced obesity: role of gut microbiota in homoeostasis of energy metabolism. Br J Nutr 123(10):1127–1137. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114520000380
Anderson G, Reiter RJ (2020) COVID-19 pathophysiology: interactions of gut microbiome, melatonin, vitamin D, stress, kynurenine and the alpha 7 nicotinic receptor: treatment implications. Melatonin Res 3(3):322–345. https://doi.org/10.32794/mr11250066
Baddal B (2019) Next-generation technologies for studying host-pathogen interactions: a focus on dual transcriptomics, CRISPR/Cas9 screening and organs-on-chips. Pathog Dis 77(6). https://doi.org/10.1093/femspd/ftz060
Bassis CM, Erb-Downward JR, Dickson RP, Freeman CM, Schmidt TM, Young VB, Beck JM, Curtis JL, Huffnagle GB (2015) Analysis of the upper respiratory tract microbiotas as the source of the lung and gastric microbiotas in healthy individuals. mBio 6(2):e00037. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00037-15
Bassis CM, Tang AL, Young VB, Pynnonen MA (2014) The nasal cavity microbiota of healthy adults. Microbiome 2:27. https://doi.org/10.1186/2049-2618-2-27
Becattini S, Taur Y, Pamer EG (2016) Antibiotic-induced changes in the intestinal microbiota and disease. Trends Mol Med 22(6):458–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2016.04.003
Beck MA, Levander OA, Handy J (2003) Selenium deficiency and viral infection. J Nutr 133(5 Suppl 1):1463S–1467S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/133.5.1463S
Belkaid Y, Hand TW (2014) Role of the microbiota in immunity and inflammation. Cell 157(1):121–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.03.011
Brown K, DeCoffe D, Molcan E, Gibson DL (2012) Diet-induced dysbiosis of the intestinal microbiota and the effects on immunity and disease. Nutrients 4(8):1095–1119. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu4081095
Bruno G, Rocco G, Zaccari P, Porowska B, Mascellino MT, Severi C (2018) Helicobacter pylori infection and gastric Dysbiosis: can probiotics administration be useful to treat this condition? Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 2018:6237239. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6237239
Casadevall A, Pirofski LA (2000) Host-pathogen interactions: basic concepts of microbial commensalism, colonization, infection, and disease. Infect Immun 68(12):6511–6518. https://doi.org/10.1128/iai.68.12.6511-6518.2000
Chaari A, Bendriss G, Zakaria D, McVeigh C (2020) Importance of dietary changes during the coronavirus pandemic: how to upgrade your immune response. Front Public Health 8:476. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00476
Chan KH, Poon LL, Cheng VC, Guan Y, Hung IF, Kong J, Yam LY, Seto WH, Yuen KY, Peiris JS (2004) Detection of SARS coronavirus in patients with suspected SARS. Emerg Infect Dis 10(2):294–299. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1002.030610
Chan YK, Estaki M, Gibson DL (2013) Clinical consequences of diet-induced dysbiosis. Ann Nutr Metab 63(Suppl 2):28–40. https://doi.org/10.1159/000354902
Charlson ES, Bittinger K, Haas AR, Fitzgerald AS, Frank I, Yadav A, Bushman FD, Collman RG (2011) Topographical continuity of bacterial populations in the healthy human respiratory tract. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 184(8):957–963. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201104-0655OC
Chen H, Guo J, Wang C, Luo F, Yu X, Zhang W, Li J, Zhao D, Xu D, Gong Q, Liao J, Yang H, Hou W, Zhang Y (2020) Clinical characteristics and intrauterine vertical transmission potential of COVID-19 infection in nine pregnant women: a retrospective review of medical records. Lancet 395(10226):809–815. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30360-3
Cheung MK, Lam WY, Fung WY, Law PT, Au CH, Nong W, Kam KM, Kwan HS, Tsui SK (2013) Sputum microbiota in tuberculosis as revealed by 16S rRNA pyrosequencing. PLoS One 8(1):e54574. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054574
Chunxi L, Haiyue L, Yanxia L, Jianbing P, Jin S (2020) The gut microbiota and respiratory diseases: new evidence. J Immunol Res 2020:2340670. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/2340670
Correa JD, Fernandes GR, Calderaro DC, Mendonca SMS, Silva JM, Albiero ML, Cunha FQ, Xiao E, Ferreira GA, Teixeira AL, Mukherjee C, Leys EJ, Silva TA, Graves DT (2019) Oral microbial dysbiosis linked to worsened periodontal condition in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Sci Rep 9(1):8379. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44674-6
Dashraath P, Wong JLJ, Lim MXK, Lim LM, Li S, Biswas A, Choolani M, Mattar C, Su LL (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 222(6):521–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2020.03.021
de Araujo FF, Farias DP (2020) Psychobiotics: an emerging alternative to ensure mental health amid the COVID-19 outbreak? Trends Food Sci Technol 103:386–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.07.006
DeGruttola AK, Low D, Mizoguchi A, Mizoguchi E (2016) Current understanding of Dysbiosis in disease in human and animal models. Inflamm Bowel Dis 22(5):1137–1150. https://doi.org/10.1097/MIB.0000000000000750
Dekaboruah E, Suryavanshi MV, Chettri D, Verma AK (2020) Human microbiome: an academic update on human body site specific surveillance and its possible role. Arch Microbiol 202(8):2147–2167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00203-020-01931-x
Diavatopoulos DA, Short KR, Price JT, Wilksch JJ, Brown LE, Briles DE, Strugnell RA, Wijburg OL (2010) Influenza a virus facilitates Streptococcus pneumoniae transmission and disease. FASEB J 24(6):1789–1798. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.09-146779
Dickson RP, Erb-Downward JR, Freeman CM, McCloskey L, Beck JM, Huffnagle GB, Curtis JL (2015) Spatial variation in the healthy human Lung microbiome and the adapted island model of Lung biogeography. Ann Am Thorac Soc 12(6):821–830. https://doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.201501-029OC
Dickson RP, Erb-Downward JR, Freeman CM, McCloskey L, Falkowski NR, Huffnagle GB, Curtis JL (2017) Bacterial topography of the healthy human lower respiratory tract. mBio 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.02287-16
Din AU, Mazhar M, Waseem M, Ahmad W, Bibi A, Hassan A, Ali N, Gang W, Qian G, Ullah R, Shah T, Ullah M, Khan I, Nisar MF, Wu J (2020) SARS-CoV-2 microbiome dysbiosis linked disorders and possible probiotics role. Biomed Pharmacother 133:110947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110947
Domingues CPF, Rebelo JS, Dionisio F, Botelho A, Nogueira T (2020) The social distancing imposed to contain COVID-19 can affect our microbiome: a double-edged sword in human health. mSphere 5(5). https://doi.org/10.1128/mSphere.00716-20
Donati Zeppa S, Agostini D, Piccoli G, Stocchi V, Sestili P (2020) Gut microbiota status in COVID-19: an unrecognized player? Front Cell Infect Microbiol 10:576551. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2020.576551
Dudek-Wicher RK, Junka A, Bartoszewicz M (2018) The influence of antibiotics and dietary components on gut microbiota. Prz Gastroenterol 13(2):85–92. https://doi.org/10.5114/pg.2018.76005
Dunn AB, Jordan S, Baker BJ, Carlson NS (2017) The maternal infant microbiome: considerations for labor and birth. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 42(6):318–325. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMC.0000000000000373
Edwards SM, Cunningham SA, Dunlop AL, Corwin EJ (2017) The maternal gut microbiome during pregnancy. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 42(6):310–317. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMC.0000000000000372
Ejtahed HS, Hasani-Ranjbar S, Siadat SD, Larijani B (2020) The most important challenges ahead of microbiome pattern in the post era of the COVID-19 pandemic. J Diabetes Metab Disord:1–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40200-020-00579-0
El-Sharkawy AM, Sahota O, Lobo DN (2015) Acute and chronic effects of hydration status on health. Nutr Rev 73(Suppl 2):97–109. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuv038
Elshafeey F, Magdi R, Hindi N, Elshebiny M, Farrag N, Mahdy S, Sabbour M, Gebril S, Nasser M, Kamel M, Amir A, Maher Emara M, Nabhan A (2020) A systematic scoping review of COVID-19 during pregnancy and childbirth. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 150(1):47–52. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.13182
Fan J, Li X, Gao Y, Zhou J, Wang S, Huang B, Wu J, Cao Q, Chen Y, Wang Z, Luo D, Zhou T, Li R, Shang Y, Nie X (2020) The lung tissue microbiota features of 20 deceased patients with COVID-19. J Infect 81(3):e64–e67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.06.047
Fan Y, Pedersen O (2021) Gut microbiota in human metabolic health and disease. Nat Rev Microbiol 19(1):55–71. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-020-0433-9
Feleszko W, Jaworska J, Rha RD, Steinhausen S, Avagyan A, Jaudszus A, Ahrens B, Groneberg DA, Wahn U, Hamelmann E (2007) Probiotic-induced suppression of allergic sensitization and airway inflammation is associated with an increase of T regulatory-dependent mechanisms in a murine model of asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 37(4):498–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2006.02629.x
Ferreira C, Viana SD, Reis F (2020) Gut microbiota Dysbiosis-immune Hyperresponse-inflammation triad in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): impact of pharmacological and nutraceutical approaches. Microorganisms 8(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8101514
Forbes JD, Knox NC, Ronholm J, Pagotto F, Reimer A (2017) Metagenomics: the next culture-independent game changer. Front Microbiol 8:1069. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.01069
Francino MP (2015) Antibiotics and the human gut microbiome: Dysbioses and accumulation of resistances. Front Microbiol 6:1543. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.01543
Frank DN, Feazel LM, Bessesen MT, Price CS, Janoff EN, Pace NR (2010) The human nasal microbiota and Staphylococcus aureus carriage. PLoS One 5(5):e10598. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010598
Frohlich EE, Farzi A, Mayerhofer R, Reichmann F, Jacan A, Wagner B, Zinser E, Bordag N, Magnes C, Frohlich E, Kashofer K, Gorkiewicz G, Holzer P (2016) Cognitive impairment by antibiotic-induced gut dysbiosis: analysis of gut microbiota-brain communication. Brain Behav Immun 56:140–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2016.02.020
From the American Association of Neurological Surgeons ASoNC, Interventional Radiology Society of Europe CIRACoNSESoMINTESoNESOSfCA, Interventions SoIRSoNS, World Stroke O, Sacks D, Baxter B, BCV C, Carpenter JS, Cognard C, Dippel D, Eesa M, Fischer U, Hausegger K, Hirsch JA, Shazam Hussain M, Jansen O, Jayaraman MV, Khalessi AA, Kluck BW, Lavine S, Meyers PM, Ramee S, Rufenacht DA, Schirmer CM, Vorwerk D (2018) Multisociety consensus quality improvement revised consensus statement for endovascular therapy of acute ischemic stroke. Int J Stroke 13(6):612–632. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747493018778713
Getahun H, Smith I, Trivedi K, Paulin S, Balkhy HH (2020) Tackling antimicrobial resistance in the COVID-19 pandemic. Bull World Health Organ 98(7):442–442A. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.20.268573
Gisolfi CV (2000) Is the GI system built for exercise? News Physiol Sci 15:114–119. https://doi.org/10.1152/physiologyonline.2000.15.3.114
Gou W, Fu Y, Yue L, Chen GD, Cai X, Shuai M, Xu F, Yi X, Chen H, Zhu YJ, Xiao ML (2020) Gut microbiota may underlie the predisposition of healthy individuals to COVID-19. MedRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.22.20076091
Greenwood JM, Ezquerra AL, Behrens S, Branca A, Mallet L (2016) Current analysis of host-parasite interactions with a focus on next generation sequencing data. Zoology (Jena) 119(4):298–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zool.2016.06.010
Han M, Zha Y, Chong H, Zhong C, Ning K (2020) Utilizing microbiome approaches to assist source tracking, treatment and prevention of COVID-19: review and assessment. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 18:3615–3622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csbj.2020.11.027
Hiergeist A, Glasner J, Reischl U, Gessner A (2015) Analyses of intestinal microbiota: culture versus sequencing. ILAR J 56(2):228–240. https://doi.org/10.1093/ilar/ilv017
Hikmet F, Mear L, Edvinsson A, Micke P, Uhlen M, Lindskog C (2020) The protein expression profile of ACE2 in human tissues. Mol Syst Biol 16(7):e9610. https://doi.org/10.15252/msb.20209610
Hills RD Jr, Pontefract BA, Mishcon HR, Black CA, Sutton SC, Theberge CR (2019) Gut microbiome: profound implications for diet and disease. Nutrients 11(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11071613
Hooper LV, Littman DR, Macpherson AJ (2012) Interactions between the microbiota and the immune system. Science 336(6086):1268–1273. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1223490
Hovhannisyan H, Gabaldon T (2019) Transcriptome sequencing approaches to elucidate host-microbe interactions in opportunistic human fungal pathogens. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 422:193–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/82_2018_122
Hui AW, Lau HW, Chan TH, Tsui SK (2013) The human microbiota: a new direction in the investigation of thoracic diseases. J Thorac Dis 5(Suppl 2):S127–S131. https://doi.org/10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2013.07.41
Ichinohe T, Pang IK, Kumamoto Y, Peaper DR, Ho JH, Murray TS, Iwasaki A (2011) Microbiota regulates immune defense against respiratory tract influenza a virus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(13):5354–5359. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1019378108
Jiang D, Armour CR, Hu C, Mei M, Tian C, Sharpton TJ, Jiang Y (2019) Microbiome multi-Omics network analysis: statistical considerations, limitations, and opportunities. Front Genet 10:995. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.00995
Johnson AJ, Zheng JJ, Kang JW, Saboe A, Knights D, Zivkovic AM (2020) A guide to diet-microbiome study design. Front Nutr 7:79. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2020.00079
Keim NL, Martin RJ (2014) Dietary whole grain-microbiota interactions: insights into mechanisms for human health. Adv Nutr 5(5):556–557. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.114.006536
Kesh K, Mendez R, Abdelrahman L, Banerjee S, Banerjee S (2020) Type 2 diabetes induced microbiome dysbiosis is associated with therapy resistance in pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Microb Cell Factories 19(1):75. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-020-01330-3
Khatiwada S, Subedi A (2020) Lung microbiome and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): possible link and implications. Hum Microb J 17:100073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humic.2020.100073
Kim S, Covington A, Pamer EG (2017) The intestinal microbiota: antibiotics, colonization resistance, and enteric pathogens. Immunol Rev 279(1):90–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/imr.12563
Kirby TO, Ochoa-Reparaz J (2018) The gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis: a potential therapeutic avenue. Med Sci (Basel) 6(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/medsci6030069
Konstantinidis T, Tsigalou C, Karvelas A, Stavropoulou E, Voidarou C, Bezirtzoglou E (2020) Effects of antibiotics upon the gut microbiome: a review of the literature. Biomedicine 8(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines8110502
Kyle MH, Glassman ME, Khan A, Fernandez CR, Hanft E, Emeruwa UN, Scripps T, Walzer L, Liao GV, Saslaw M, Rubenstein D, Hirsch DS, Keown MK, Stephens A, Mollicone I, Bence ML, Gupta A, Sultan S, Sibblies C, Whittier S, Abreu W, Akita F, Penn A, Orange JS, Saiman L, Welch MG, Gyamfi-Bannerman C, Stockwell MS, Dumitriu D (2020) A review of newborn outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Semin Perinatol 44(7):151286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semperi.2020.151286
Langevin S, Pichon M, Smith E, Morrison J, Bent Z, Green R, Barker K, Solberg O, Gillet Y, Javouhey E, Lina B, Katze MG, Josset L (2017) Early nasopharyngeal microbial signature associated with severe influenza in children: a retrospective pilot study. J Gen Virol 98(10):2425–2437. https://doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.000920
Lau K, Srivatsav V, Rizwan A, Nashed A, Liu R, Shen R, Akhtar M (2017) Bridging the gap between gut microbial Dysbiosis and cardiovascular diseases. Nutrients 9(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9080859
Lebeer S, Spacova I (2019) Exploring human host-microbiome interactions in health and disease-how to not get lost in translation. Genome Biol 20(1):56. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-019-1669-4
Lee SR (2018) Critical role of zinc as either an antioxidant or a Prooxidant in cellular systems. Oxidative Med Cell Longev 2018:9156285. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9156285
Lee SY, Lee E, Park YM, Hong SJ (2018) Microbiome in the gut-skin Axis in atopic dermatitis. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res 10(4):354–362. https://doi.org/10.4168/aair.2018.10.4.354
Lee YB, Byun EJ, Kim HS (2019) Potential role of the microbiome in acne: a comprehensive review. J Clin Med 8(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8070987
Leis JA, Born KB, Theriault G, Ostrow O, Grill A, Johnston KB (2020) Using antibiotics wisely for respiratory tract infection in the era of covid-19. BMJ 371:m4125. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m4125
Lemon KP, Klepac-Ceraj V, Schiffer HK, Brodie EL, Lynch SV, Kolter R (2010) Comparative analyses of the bacterial microbiota of the human nostril and oropharynx. mBio 1(3). https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00129-10
Lim S, Bae JH, Kwon HS, Nauck MA (2021) COVID-19 and diabetes mellitus: from pathophysiology to clinical management. Nat Rev Endocrinol 17(1):11–30. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-020-00435-4
Ling Z, Liu X, Luo Y, Yuan L, Nelson KE, Wang Y, Xiang C, Li L (2013) Pyrosequencing analysis of the human microbiota of healthy Chinese undergraduates. BMC Genomics 14:390. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-14-390
Magana M, Pushpanathan M, Santos AL, Leanse L, Fernandez M, Ioannidis A, Giulianotti MA, Apidianakis Y, Bradfute S, Ferguson AL, Cherkasov A, Seleem MN, Pinilla C, de la Fuente-Nunez C, Lazaridis T, Dai T, Houghten RA, Hancock REW, Tegos GP (2020) The value of antimicrobial peptides in the age of resistance. Lancet Infect Dis 20(9):e216–e230. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30327-3
Maleki Dana P, Kolahdooz F, Sadoughi F, Moazzami B, Chaichian S, Asemi Z (2020) COVID-19 and pregnancy: a review of current knowledge. Infez Med 28(suppl 1):46–51
Malinis M, McManus D, Davis M, Topal J (2020) An overview on the use of antivirals for the treatment of patients with COVID19 disease. Expert Opin Investig Drugs:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13543784.2021.1847270
Malla MA, Dubey A, Kumar A, Yadav S, Hashem A, Abd Allah EF (2018) Exploring the human microbiome: the potential future role of next-generation sequencing in disease diagnosis and treatment. Front Immunol 9:2868. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.02868
Mansur JL (2020) Letter: low population mortality from COVID-19 in countries south of latitude 35 degrees north supports vitamin D as a factor determining severity. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 52(2):411–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/apt.15820
McCartney DM, Byrne DG (2020) Optimisation of vitamin D status for enhanced Immuno-protection against Covid-19. Ir Med J 113(4):58
McCullers JA, Rehg JE (2002) Lethal synergism between influenza virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae: characterization of a mouse model and the role of platelet-activating factor receptor. J Infect Dis 186(3):341–350. https://doi.org/10.1086/341462
Morais LH, HLT S, Mazmanian SK (2020) The gut microbiota-brain axis in behaviour and brain disorders. Nat Rev Microbiol. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-020-00460-0
Morris A, Beck JM, Schloss PD, Campbell TB, Crothers K, Curtis JL, Flores SC, Fontenot AP, Ghedin E, Huang L, Jablonski K, Kleerup E, Lynch SV, Sodergren E, Twigg H, Young VB, Bassis CM, Venkataraman A, Schmidt TM, Weinstock GM, Lung HIVMP (2013) Comparison of the respiratory microbiome in healthy nonsmokers and smokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 187(10):1067–1075. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201210-1913OC
Neu J, Rushing J (2011) Cesarean versus vaginal delivery: long-term infant outcomes and the hygiene hypothesis. Clin Perinatol 38(2):321–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clp.2011.03.008
Neuman H, Forsythe P, Uzan A, Avni O, Koren O (2018) Antibiotics in early life: dysbiosis and the damage done. FEMS Microbiol Rev 42(4):489–499. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsre/fuy018
Nuriel-Ohayon M, Neuman H, Koren O (2016) Microbial changes during pregnancy, birth, and infancy. Front Microbiol 7:1031. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01031
O'Hara AM, Shanahan F (2006) The gut flora as a forgotten organ. EMBO Rep 7(7):688–693. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.embor.7400731
Olaimat AN, Aolymat I, Al-Holy M, Ayyash M, Abu Ghoush M, Al-Nabulsi AA, Osaili T, Apostolopoulos V, Liu SQ, Shah NP (2020) The potential application of probiotics and prebiotics for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. NPJ Sci Food 4:17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-020-00078-9
Pascal M, Perez-Gordo M, Caballero T, Escribese MM, Lopez Longo MN, Luengo O, Manso L, Matheu V, Seoane E, Zamorano M, Labrador M, Mayorga C (2018) Microbiome and allergic diseases. Front Immunol 9:1584. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.01584
Pascarella G, Strumia A, Piliego C, Bruno F, Del Buono R, Costa F, Scarlata S, Agro FE (2020) COVID-19 diagnosis and management: a comprehensive review. J Intern Med 288(2):192–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.13091
Peters HP, De Vries WR, Vanberge-Henegouwen GP, Akkermans LM (2001) Potential benefits and hazards of physical activity and exercise on the gastrointestinal tract. Gut 48(3):435–439. https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.48.3.435
Picca A, Fanelli F, Calvani R, Mule G, Pesce V, Sisto A, Pantanelli C, Bernabei R, Landi F, Marzetti E (2018) Gut Dysbiosis and muscle aging: searching for novel targets against sarcopenia. Mediat Inflamm 2018:7026198. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7026198
Pulikkan J, Maji A, Dhakan DB, Saxena R, Mohan B, Anto MM, Agarwal N, Grace T, Sharma VK (2018) Gut microbial Dysbiosis in Indian children with autism Spectrum disorders. Microb Ecol 76(4):1102–1114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-018-1176-2
Quigley EM (2013) Gut bacteria in health and disease. Gastroenterol Hepatol (N Y) 9(9):560–569
Rajkumar RP (2020) COVID-19 and mental health: a review of the existing literature. Asian J Psychiatr 52:102066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102066
Read SA, Obeid S, Ahlenstiel C, Ahlenstiel G (2019) The role of zinc in antiviral immunity. Adv Nutr 10(4):696–710. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmz013
Riccio P, Rossano R (2018) Diet, gut microbiota, and vitamins D + a in multiple sclerosis. Neurotherapeutics 15(1):75–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-017-0581-4
Rishi P, Thakur K, Vij S, Rishi L, Singh A, Kaur IP, Patel SKS, Lee JK, Kalia VC (2020) Diet, gut microbiota and COVID-19. Indian J Microbiol:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12088-020-00908-0
Rodgers GP, Gibbons GH (2020) Obesity and hypertension in the time of COVID-19. JAMA 324(12):1163–1165. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.16753
Roy D, Tripathy S, Kar SK, Sharma N, Verma SK, Kaushal V (2020) Study of knowledge, attitude, anxiety & perceived mental healthcare need in Indian population during COVID-19 pandemic. Asian J Psychiatr 51:102083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102083
Sadiq FA (2021) Is it time for microbiome-based therapies in viral infections? Virus Res 291:198203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198203
Saffouri GB, Shields-Cutler RR, Chen J, Yang Y, Lekatz HR, Hale VL, Cho JM, Battaglioli EJ, Bhattarai Y, Thompson KJ, Kalari KK, Behera G, Berry JC, Peters SA, Patel R, Schuetz AN, Faith JJ, Camilleri M, Sonnenburg JL, Farrugia G, Swann JR, Grover M, Knights D, Kashyap PC (2019) Small intestinal microbial dysbiosis underlies symptoms associated with functional gastrointestinal disorders. Nat Commun 10(1):2012. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09964-7
Sattar N, McInnes IB, McMurray JJV (2020) Obesity is a risk factor for severe COVID-19 infection: multiple potential mechanisms. Circulation 142(1):4–6. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.047659
Segal LN, Alekseyenko AV, Clemente JC, Kulkarni R, Wu B, Gao Z, Chen H, Berger KI, Goldring RM, Rom WN, Blaser MJ, Weiden MD (2013) Enrichment of lung microbiome with supraglottic taxa is associated with increased pulmonary inflammation. Microbiome 1(1):19. https://doi.org/10.1186/2049-2618-1-19
Shah VK, Firmal P, Alam A, Ganguly D, Chattopadhyay S (2020) Overview of immune response during SARS-CoV-2 infection: lessons from the past. Front Immunol 11:1949. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01949
Sheflin AM, Whitney AK, Weir TL (2014) Cancer-promoting effects of microbial dysbiosis. Curr Oncol Rep 16(10):406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11912-014-0406-0
Shen Z, Xiao Y, Kang L, Ma W, Shi L, Zhang L, Zhou Z, Yang J, Zhong J, Yang D, Guo L, Zhang G, Li H, Xu Y, Chen M, Gao Z, Wang J, Ren L, Li M (2020) Genomic diversity of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 in patients with coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis 71(15):713–720. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa203
Shi Y, Wang G, Cai XP, Deng JW, Zheng L, Zhu HH, Zheng M, Yang B, Chen Z (2020) An overview of COVID-19. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 21(5):343–360. https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B2000083
Shinu P, Morsy MA, Deb PK, Nair AB, Goyal M, Shah J, Kotta S (2020) SARS CoV-2 organotropism associated pathogenic relationship of gut-brain Axis and illness. Front Mol Biosci 7:606779. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2020.606779
Short KR, Habets MN, Hermans PW, Diavatopoulos DA (2012) Interactions between Streptococcus pneumoniae and influenza virus: a mutually beneficial relationship? Future Microbiol 7(5):609–624. https://doi.org/10.2217/fmb.12.29
Swiatecka D, Narbad A, Ridgway KP, Kostyra H (2011) The study on the impact of glycated pea proteins on human intestinal bacteria. Int J Food Microbiol 145(1):267–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.01.002
Thursby E, Juge N (2017) Introduction to the human gut microbiota. Biochem J 474(11):1823–1836. https://doi.org/10.1042/BCJ20160510
Vangay P, Ward T, Gerber JS, Knights D (2015) Antibiotics, pediatric dysbiosis, and disease. Cell Host Microbe 17(5):553–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2015.04.006
Varghese PM, Tsolaki AG, Yasmin H, Shastri A, Ferluga J, Vatish M, Madan T, Kishore U (2020) Host-pathogen interaction in COVID-19: pathogenesis, potential therapeutics and vaccination strategies. Immunobiology 225(6):152008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imbio.2020.152008
Venkataraman A, Bassis CM, Beck JM, Young VB, Curtis JL, Huffnagle GB, Schmidt TM (2015) Application of a neutral community model to assess structuring of the human lung microbiome. mBio 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.02284-14
Villapol S (2020) Gastrointestinal symptoms associated with COVID-19: impact on the gut microbiome. Transl Res 226:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trsl.2020.08.004
West CE, Dzidic M, Prescott SL, Jenmalm MC (2017) Bugging allergy; role of pre-, pro- and synbiotics in allergy prevention. Allergol Int 66(4):529–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alit.2017.08.001
Yang I, Corwin EJ, Brennan PA, Jordan S, Murphy JR, Dunlop A (2016) The infant microbiome: implications for infant health and neurocognitive development. Nurs Res 65(1):76–88. https://doi.org/10.1097/NNR.0000000000000133
Yang R, Mei H, Zheng T, Fu Q, Zhang Y, Buka S, Yao X, Tang Z, Zhang X, Qiu L, Zhang Y, Zhou J, Cao J, Wang Y, Zhou A (2020) Pregnant women with COVID-19 and risk of adverse birth outcomes and maternal-fetal vertical transmission: a population-based cohort study in Wuhan. China BMC Med 18(1):330. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-020-01798-1
Yang YJ, Sheu BS (2012) Probiotics-containing yogurts suppress helicobacter pylori load and modify immune response and intestinal microbiota in the helicobacter pylori-infected children. Helicobacter 17(4):297–304. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-5378.2012.00941.x
Yi H, Yong D, Lee K, Cho YJ, Chun J (2014) Profiling bacterial community in upper respiratory tracts. BMC Infect Dis 14:583. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-014-0583-3
Young VB (2017) The role of the microbiome in human health and disease: an introduction for clinicians. BMJ 356:j831. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j831
Zambrano LD, Ellington S, Strid P, Galang RR, Oduyebo T, Tong VT, Woodworth KR, Nahabedian JF 3rd, Azziz-Baumgartner E, Gilboa SM, Meaney-Delman D (2020) Pregnancy CC-R, infant linked outcomes T (2020) update: characteristics of symptomatic women of reproductive age with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection by pregnancy status–United States, January 22-October 3. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 69(44):1641–1647. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6944e3
Zuo T, Zhang F, Lui GCY, Yeoh YK, Li AYL, Zhan H, Wan Y, Chung ACK, Cheung CP, Chen N, Lai CKC, Chen Z, Tso EYK, Fung KSC, Chan V, Ling L, Joynt G, Hui DSC, Chan FKL, Chan PKS, Ng SC (2020) Alterations in gut microbiota of patients with COVID-19 during time of hospitalization. Gastroenterology 159(3):944–955. e948. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2020.05.048
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Muthuirulan, P., Bandyopadhyay, M., Mamillapalli, S., Sharma, P. (2022). Unlocking the Mysteries of the Human Microbiome to Combat COVID-19. In: Thomas, S. (eds) Human Microbiome . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7672-7_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7672-7_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-16-7671-0
Online ISBN: 978-981-16-7672-7
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)