Abstract
This chapter takes varied translingual approaches to translation by examining Cheng’s, Shan’s, and Dai’s historically informed novels. In addition, I engage with the concept of fabulation in my analysis of the three writers’ fictional reconfigurations of classical and modern Chinese history and literary traditions. The three main sections of the chapter are organized in a way that reflects the increasingly fabulative qualities of Franco-Chinese novels, from Cheng’s “faithful” rewriting of classical Chinese romance, through Shan’s evocation of supernatural beings, to Dai’s Rabelaisian and carnivalesque configuration of historical figures and human–animal sexualities, where the idea of fabulation may even echo Jean de La Fontaine’s anthropomorphic animal fables. Travel, in this light, is explicitly conceptualized in Shan and Dai as transhistorical movements.
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- 1.
For greater clarity, this novel is henceforth abbreviated as L’Éternité and its English translation as Green Mountain in in-text citations.
- 2.
Jacques de Bourbon Busset is the deceased French Academician whose seat has been filled by Cheng.
- 3.
For an English translation of the folktale, see Idema (2010).
- 4.
I have added some details missing from Bent’s English translation here.
- 5.
Incidentally, as I already mentioned in the last chapter, the beginning of the sixteenth century was marked by the first formal European contacts with China, led by the Portuguese. This transcultural travel encounter will be explored in Dai’s novel in Sect. 3.4.
- 6.
For some reason, the passage that contains these two quoted expressions is omitted in the English translation.
- 7.
For an explanation of the two terms, see Lynn (1999, 43).
- 8.
Again, this expression is omitted in the English translation.
- 9.
For an English version of the folktale, see Werner (1922, 189–191). It may be interesting to note that a third Great Folktale, The Legend of the White Snake, also explicitly features as a Chinese theatrical performance in Le Dit (Li 2017a, 190–192). The only uncited fourth legend is Lady Meng Jiang.
- 10.
For a recent doctoral thesis (in French) entirely dedicated to zhi, see Ho (2011).
- 11.
I echo Antoine Compagnon’s (1997, 26) remark on a fundamental purpose of literature, with references to Baudelaire and Flaubert, to create “poncifs” (“clichés”), as he adds: “si les médiocres [écrivains] répètent des poncifs, les génies les inventent, ou en tout cas les renouvellent” (“if mediocre writers repeat clichés, geniuses invent them, or at any rate renew them”).
- 12.
- 13.
- 14.
Les Quatre Vies du Saule, literally “the weeping willow’s four lives”, remains unavailable in English; La Cithare nue, literally meaning “the naked zither”, has been translated into English as The Ghost Empress (2010); Impératrice has been translated into English as Empress: A Novel (2006).
- 15.
I will be relatively brief about this text, as I will return to it in more detail in the next chapter, from the perspective of “calligraphic” novelistic aesthetics.
- 16.
These words are borrowed from James Parakilas’s (1998, 139) comment on Spanish music.
- 17.
Let’s be clear, regardless of any aesthetic and stylistic issues in the Chinese versions, there is an extremely favourable climate of reception for Chinese writers who possess a Western profile in contemporary China. See Lovell (2012) for a sociological and historical discussion of this phenomenon.
- 18.
This movement is the background to Dai’s novel and film Balzac and the Little Chinese Seamstress, which will be explored in detail in the last chapter.
- 19.
For a brilliant study of language formalization during the Cultural Revolution, see Schoenhals (1992).
- 20.
I extensively deal with Franco-Chinese writers’ generic, thematic, and stylistic engagement with the twentieth-century evolution of modern vernacular Chinese in their French-language literary works in a different forthcoming publication, titled “Vernacular Imagination and Exophone Reconfiguration in Francophone Chinese Diasporic Literature” (S. Li 2022).
- 21.
Interestingly, this inserted text is in fact a popularly misquoted version of the original musical piece, with two extra poetic lines added in modern time.
- 22.
In fact, the huge popularity and influence of these TV dramas have drawn severe criticism from Communist officials because of the deliberate “distortions” of history in these productions. See Meng (2014).
- 23.
“Metalepsis” is Gérard Genette’s narratological term to describe the paradoxical or seemingly illogical transgressions of the boundaries between narrative levels. On the opening page of Impératrice, for example, the first-person narrator pretends to speak from the perspective of an unborn baby, as if she were a fully conscious and articulate human being.
- 24.
There is strong evidence to suggest that this French translation relies significantly on the English version.
- 25.
To complicate this fascinating case of literary retranslation, Lin actually published a revised version of this historical biography in 1965, which tones down many of these sexist remarks. Crucially, the subtitle was changed from “A True Story” to “A Novel”.
- 26.
Not surprisingly, the female character who enjoys cross-dressing is also described as a “sexual pervert” by Lin’s narrator (1957, 205).
- 27.
It suffices to read Wallace’s Introduction (2005) to perceive this affinity.
- 28.
Since this work is not available in English, all the translations of the quotations from this novel are my own.
- 29.
For a scholarly study of this historical site, see Geiss (1987).
- 30.
I have largely appropriated Driscoll and Hoffmann’s (2018, 4) description of zoopoetic texts here.
- 31.
This book is translated into English as The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires (1944).
- 32.
In this regard, it is more likely that Dai took inspiration from Victor Ségalen’s historical novel Fils du ciel, which features a “double” of another Chinese emperor. Charles Forsdick (2000, 150) notes that “the ‘sosie’ or double; the idea of sexual ambivalence and androgyny; opposing gazes from within and without the Forbidden City” constitute all the “incidents and themes which (through their repetition) acquire emblematic status in Segalen’s Chinese exoticism”.
- 33.
Incidentally, in 1563, the Portuguese historian João de Barros linked this sexual custom “to a creation myth according to which the people of Burma and Siam descended from the coupling of a Chinese woman and a dog” (Nocentelli 2013, 32). Quite extraordinarily, such a remark seems to have prefigured the fantastical plot in Rou Pu Tuan. For a fascinating account of “the palang” and “the penis bells of Burma and Siam”, see Nocentelli (2013, 18–36).
- 34.
As mentioned, Rabelais features as a fictional character, Zhengde’s European contemporary, on a couple of occasions in L’Acrobatie.
- 35.
In this fictional letter, Pires expresses his amazement at the perfect taxidermic technique practised by the Emperor’s eunuch Liu Gonggong, “formerly the chief naturalist of the Palace” (L’Acrobatie, 151). In reality, there was scarcely little record of taxidermic practice in China prior to the nineteenth century. The procedures of “stuffing” (“empaillement”) described in this passage clearly correspond to the Western taxidermic techniques, which one could easily find in any textbooks on the subject. As we currently understand it, the oldest existent taxidermic sample is a stuffed crocodile found in northern Italy, dated in the 1530s (Morris 2012, 14), that is, preceding Zhengde’s reign by a decade. For an informative discussion on the terminological evolution from “stuffing” or “empaillement” to “taxidermy”, see Aloi (2018, 114–125).
- 36.
In this regard, the elephant played a similar role in relation to European imperialism (DalMolin 2011, 18–31). In fact, the staging of combat between a rhinoceros and an elephant fascinated European painters and writers alike, as can be seen in Francis Barlow’s engravings (Prinz 2015, n. p.) and Rabelais’s Pantagruel (Chapter 29, Book V). For a brief clarification of Rabelais’s acquaintance with Dürer’s drawing, see Salomon (1943, 498–501). For a detailed study of the rhinoceros in Europe, see Clarke (1986).
- 37.
It suffices to cite two examples: xiniu wangyue 犀牛望月 (“like the rhinoceros observing the moon”) describing “the incomplete or limited state of things we see”; xin you lingxi 心有灵犀 (“having the horn of the rhinoceros in the heart” alluding to ancient Chinese mythology) describing “the tacit or reciprocal understanding between lovers or people who are close to each other”.
- 38.
However, the author simplifies considerably this historical event: this famous rhinoceros first arrived from India to Lisbon, still living; then, in turn, the Portuguese king Manuel I decided to offer it to Pope Leo X in order to gain his political favour (Prinz 2015, n.p.).
- 39.
One can find a woodcut image of “Dürer’s Rhinoceros” in high resolution on Wikipedia.
- 40.
While confirming the practical use of rhino horn powder in Chinese medicine to lower fevers and counteract toxins in ancient times, Jeannie Thomas Parker (2018, 125) resolutely challenges what she reckons as a fundamentally Western perception of the Chinese medical use of it as an aphrodisiac. According to her, this idea is “completely unfounded”, and it is quite likely that the idea was historically popularized by Western travellers. This rumour “remains amazingly tenacious even today and continues to be perpetrated even in major Western medical journals”.
- 41.
Interestingly, the original Chinese text was lost after the Tang dynasty, and much of what we know about this text now is in fact based on the Japanese medical compilation Ishinpō completed in 984.
- 42.
- 43.
See towards the end of Sect. 3.2.
- 44.
“Entre pluie et brume” is a literal translation of the classical Chinese poetic expression, (Wushan) yunyu, meaning “to have sexual intercourse” or “to make love”.
- 45.
For a snapshot of this phenomenon, see Richey (n.d.); see also the lecture series given by Anne Cheng (2012) (François Cheng’s daughter) at the Collège de France, titled “Confucius Resurrected? A Few Hypothesis”.
- 46.
I will return to Dai’s engagement with Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalytic discourses in Le Complexe de Di in the next chapter.
- 47.
While this Maoist saying is evidently Dai’s invention, the historical Mao is also known to have lived a very active sexuality.
- 48.
The “maintop” (la hune) of a sailing ship, also known as the crow’s nest, is a platform attached to the upper part of a mast. It normally functions as a high point of observation, but on this imperial vessel, all the maintops have been transformed into brothels, venues for a kind of modern-day “mile high club”. The expression “aerial acrobatics” in the title of the novel is therefore a reference to this high positioning of the sex venues.
- 49.
It is important to point out that the suggestion in the novel that this may be one of the first black Africans seen in ancient China is historically inaccurate. Historical accounts as well as fictional representations of certain “black races” in China can be retraced to the Tang dynasty (618–690 and 705–907), often known by the name kunlun 昆仑. As Don J. Wyatt (2012, 5–6) notes: “By as late as the turn of the sixteenth century of our Common Era, interaction between blacks and Chinese had already infrequently occurred for more than a millennium before direct and regular Sino-European contact began”.
- 50.
See also Bakhtin (1984, 24, 26).
- 51.
- 52.
Consider, for example, David Damrosch’s (2003, 4) influential definition of “world literature” as a body of texts that “circulate beyond their culture of origin, either in translation or in their original language”.
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Li, S. (2021). Translingual Rewriting and Transhistorical Fabulation. In: Travel, Translation and Transmedia Aesthetics. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5562-3_3
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