Abstract
The rising demand for safe food in Thailand has led to the increasing popularity of organic food. This calls for a significant transition from conventional agriculture, in which agricultural chemicals are employed to protect plants and animals and to enhance yields of agricultural produce, to organic agriculture. Such transition, however, is a complex process that requires farmers’ commitment, support from governmental and non-governmental organisations through the production chain and marketing, and supportive national policy and regulations. This chapter presents on how organic food in Thailand is produced, and addresses issues related to food production and safety that organic farmers and organic food manufacturers are facing or can anticipate. Management of organic production, using both traditional knowledge and modern technology, and how they can affect food safety, are discussed. It also raises key issues about existing regulatory systems and mechanisms that can support organic agriculture and organic food safety control measures in the Thai context.
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Notes
- 1.
Office of Agriculture Regulation (OAR), Department of Agriculture (2018) Summary of imported hazardous agrochemicals 2018 Available at: http://m.doa.go.th/ard/
- 2.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (n.d.) AGP-Agriculture and soil biodiversity. Available at: http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/thematic-sitemap/theme/spi/soil-biodiversity/agriculture-and-soil-biodiversity/en/
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Junpen A, Jirataya Pansuk J, Kamnoet O, Cheewaphongphan P, and Garivait S. (2018) Emission of air pollutants from rice residue open burning in Thailand, 2018. Atmosphere 9: 449; doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9110449
- 4.
Tirado R, Englande AJ, Promakasikorn L, and Novotny V. (2008) Use of agrochemicals in Thailand and its consequences for the environment. Greenpeace Research Laboratories Technical Note 03/2008.
- 5.
Jaipieam S, Visuthismajarn P, Sutheravut P, Siriwong W, Thoumsang S, Borjan M, and Robson M. (2009) Organophosphate pesticide residues in drinking water from artesian wells and health risk assessment of agricultural communities, Thailand. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 15: 1304–1316.
- 6.
Tirado R (2007) Nitrates in drinking water in the Philippines and Thailand. Greenpeace Research Laboratories Technical Note 10/2007.
- 7.
Nicolopoulou-Stamati P, Maipas S, Kotampasi C, Stamatis P, and Hens L. (2016) Chemical pesticides and human health: the urgent need for a new concept in agriculture. Frontiers in Public Health 4: 148–155.
- 8.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (2019) Greenhouse gas reduction. Available at: https://www.iaea.org/topics/greenhouse-gas-reduction
- 9.
Destoumieux-GarzĂłn D, Mavingui P, Boetsch G, Boissier J, Darriet F, Duboz P, Fritsch C, Giraudoux P, Le Roux F, Morand S, Paillard C, Pontier D, Sueur C, and Voituron Y. (2018) The One Health Concept: 10 years old and a long road ahead. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 5: 14; doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2018.00014
- 10.
National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (2013) Thai Agricultural Standard TAS 9001–2013: Good Agricultural Practices for Food Crop.
- 11.
Bio Thai (2016) Thai PAN has published the results of their second round of testing on chemical pesticide residues for 2016. Available at: https://www.biothai.org/node/1427
- 12.
Boonchai K. (2016) Management of agricultural and food systems that are safe from agrochemicals: lessons from modelled areas. A publication of National Health Commission Office [article in Thai].
- 13.
Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand. (2017a) ACT Organic Standards 2016 (Revision 2017) Available at http://actorganic-cert.or.th/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/act_standards_2016_v4_revision24-02-17.pdf
- 14.
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (2016) Vision and mission page. Available at: https://eng.moac.go.th/ewt_news.php?nid=101
- 15.
Thailand National Food Committee (TNFC) (2012) Strategic framework for food management in Thailand (2012–2016). Available at: https://www.foodsafety.moph.go.th/document/Info_general/Strategic_Framework.pdf. This article gives an example of the active collaboration between these two main governmental agencies to form food safety policy.
- 16.
Naewbanij JO. (2005) Food safety overview in Thailand. E-document of the presentation at SELAMAT EU-Asian Food Safety Platform Lisbon, Portugal, April 11, 2005. Available at: https://selamat.net/upload_mm/7/5/3/6be94190-ef9f-4753-9c80-126732c76da7_p11.pdf
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- 18.
Office of the Council of State (2008) Unofficial translation of Hazardous Substance Act, B.E. 2535 (1992) https://www.jetro.go.jp/thailand/e_activity/pdf/hazsubact2535.pdf
- 19.
- 20.
Office of the Council of State of Thailand’s Law for ASEAN project. (n.d.) Agricultural Commodity Standard Act, B.E. 2551 (2008) - initial version. Available at: http://web.krisdika.go.th/data/outsitedata/outsite21/file/AGRICULTURAL_COMMODITY_STANDARDS _ACT,_B.E._2551_(2008).pdf
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Thai Organic Trade Association (2011) Overview of organic agriculture in Thailand. Available at: http://www.thaiorganictrade.com/en/article/442
- 23.
Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand. (2019) bout ACT. Available at: http://actorganic-cert.or.th/about/
- 24.
Thai Organic Trade Association (2011) Overview of organic agriculture in Thailand. Available at: http://www.thaiorganictrade.com/en/article/442
- 25.
Nandwani D. and Nwosisi S. (2016) Global trends in organic agriculture. In Nandwani D (editor) Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture. Springer International, Switzerland. p. 22.
- 26.
Thai Organic Trade Association (2011) Overview of organic agriculture in Thailand. Available at: http://www.thaiorganictrade.com/en/article/442
- 27.
National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (2003) Thai Agricultural Standard TAS 9000–2003: Organic Agriculture Part 1: The Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organic Agriculture. Available at: https://www.acfs.go.th/standard/download/eng/TAS-9000.pdf
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FAO (2018a) Country fact sheet on food and agriculture policy trends: Thailand. A publication of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/I8683EN/i8683en.pdf
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Win HE. (2017) Organic agriculture in Thailand. FFTC Agricultural Policy Article. Available at: http://ap.fftc.agnet.org/ap_db.php?id=734&print=1
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Shelef O, Weisberg PJ, and Provenza FD. (2017) The value of native plants and local production in an era of global agriculture. Frontiers in Plant Science 8: 2069; doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.02069
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Kongsom C and Panyakul V. (2016) Production and market of certified organic products in Thailand. International Journal of Economics and Management Engineering 10: 2723–2727.
- 32.
Pracharuengwit, P and Chiaravutthi, Y. (2015) Consumer willingness to pay for organic food in Thailand: evidence from the random nth-price auction experiment. Business Administration Journal 146: 52–70.
- 33.
Roitner-Schobesberger B, Darnhofer I, Somsook S, and Vogl CR. (2008) Consumer perception s of organic foods in Bangkok, Thailand. Food Policy 33: 112–121.
- 34.
Sangkumchalianga P and Huang W-C. (2012) Consumers’ perceptions and attitudes of organic food products in Northern Thailand. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review 15: 87–102.
- 35.
Wanwimolruk S, Phopin K, Boonpangrak S, and Prachayasittikul V. (2016) Food safety in Thailand 4: comparison of pesticide residues found in three commonly consumed vegetables purchased from local markets and supermarkets in Thailand. Peer J. 4: 2432.
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National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards (2018) Manual of use and display of standard certification under the Agricultural Standard Act B.E. 2551 (2008). [article in Thai]
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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2018b) Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) for Sustainable Local Food Systems. Available at http://www.fao.org/3/I8288EN/i8288en.pdf
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National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards. (n.d.) Training document: Guidelines for international certification of organic products and use of organic seal. Available at: http://certify.dld.go.th/certify/images/project/organic/organic2562/pwR5/2.pdf. [article in Thai]
- 39.
Kongsom C and Panyakul V. (2016) Production and market of certified organic products in Thailand. International Journal of Economics and Management Engineering 10: 2723–2727.
- 40.
Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand. (2017a) ACT Organic Standards 2016 (Revision 2017) Available at: http://actorganic-cert.or.th/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/act_standards_2016_v4_revision24-02-17.pdf
- 41.
Bio Thai (2016) Thai PAN has published the results of their second round of testing on chemical pesticide residues for 2016. Available at: https://www.biothai.org/node/1427
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Rama Healthy Farm Project. (n.d.) Lessons from Ranathibodi Healthy Farm. Medical Faculty, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Thailand. [article in Thai]
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Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (2017c) ACT Organic Standards 2016 (Revision 2017); Appendix 1 List of approved inputs used in organic production, Part 1.1 Input used for soil fertilisers and soil conditioners. Available at: http://actorganic-cert.or.th/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/act_standards_2016_v4_revision24-02-17.pdf
- 44.
Chitov T, Dispan R, and Kasinrerk W. (2008) Incidence and diarrhegenic potential of Bacillus cereus in pasteurized milk and cereal products in Thailand. Journal of Food Safety 28: 467–481.
- 45.
Chitov T. (2018) Evaluation of dairy farm sanitation and microbiological quality of raw milk. Internal report of research investigation submitted to Science Faculty, Chiang Mai University.
- 46.
Coorevits A, De Jonghe V, Vandroemme J, Reekmans R, Heyrman J, Messens W, De Vos P, and Heyndrickx M. (2008) Comparative analysis of the diversity of aerobic spore-forming bacteria in raw milk from organic and conventional dairy farms. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 31: 126–40.
- 47.
Bailey JS and Cosby DE. (2005) Salmonella prevalence in free-range and certified organic chickens. Journal of Food Protection 68: 2451–2453.
- 48.
Tango CN, Choi N-J, Chung MS, and Oh DH. (2014) Bacteriological quality of vegetables from organic and conventional production in different areas of Korea. Journal of Food Protection 77: 1411–1417.
- 49.
- 50.
For further reference, see: Adams M, Moss MO, McClure P. (2016) Food Microbiology, 4th edition. RSC Publishing. UK.
- 51.
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (2019) Food-borne zoonotic diseases. Available at: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/food-borne-zoonotic-diseases
- 52.
Meerburg BG and Kijlstra A. (2007) Review role of rodents in transmission of Salmonella and Campylobacter. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 87: 2774–2781.
- 53.
Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT) (2017b) ACT Organic Standards 2016 (Revision 2017); Section 2.5 Soil, water, and fertilizers management. Available at: http://actorganic-cert.or.th/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/act_standards_2016_v4_revision24-02-17.pdf
- 54.
LĂĽcke F-K. (2018) Microbiological safety of organic and conventional foods. Foodbalt-2017 conference paper; doi: https://doi.org/10.22616/foodbalt.2017.003
- 55.
See: Boonchai K. (2016) Management of agricultural and food systems that are safe from agrochemicals: lessons from modelled areas. A publication of National Health Commission Office [article in Thai]. These conclusions are also supported by personal interviews and observations of the author.
- 56.
Rama Healthy Farm Project. (n.d.) Lessons from Ranathibodi Healthy Farm. Medical Faculty, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Thailand. [article in Thai]
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Wongsasuluk P, Chotpantarat S, Siriwong W, and Robson M. (2013) Heavy metal contamination and human health risk assessment in drinking water from shallow groundwater wells in an agricultural area in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 36: 169–182.
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Tirado R (2007) Nitrates in drinking water in the Philippines and Thailand. Greenpeace Research Laboratories Technical Note 10/2007.
- 59.
Boonchai K. (2016) Management of agricultural and food systems that are safe from agrochemicals: lessons from modelled areas. A publication of National Health Commission Office [article in Thai].
- 60.
Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT) (2017c) ACT Organic Standards 2016 (Revision 2017); Section 7 Labelling and use of organic seal. Available at: http://actorganic-cert.or.th/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/act_standards_2016_v4_revision24-02-17.pdf
- 61.
Rama Healthy Farm Project. (n.d.) Lessons from Ranathibodi Healthy Farm. Medical Faculty, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Thailand. [article in Thai]
- 62.
Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (2017b) ACT Organic Standards 2016 (Revision 2017); Appendix 1 List of approved inputs used in organic production. Available at: http://actorganic-cert.or.th/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/act_standards_2016_v4_revision24-02-17.pdf
- 63.
Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT) (2017a) ACT Organic Standards 2016 (Revision 2017); Appendix 1 List of Approved Inputs Used in Organic Production, Part 1.2 Products and methods used for pest, disease, weed control and growth regulators. Available at: http://actorganic-cert.or.th/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/act_standards_2016_v4_revision24-02-17.pdf
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Johler S, Kalbhenn EM, Heini N, Brodmann P, Gautsch S, BaÄźcioÄźlu M, Contzen M, Stephan M, and Ehling-Schulz M. (2018) Enterotoxin production of Bacillus thuringiensis isolates from biopesticides, foods, and outbreaks. Frontiers in Microbiology 9: 1915; doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01915
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Chitov, T. (2020). Understanding Production and Safety Situations of Organic Food in Thailand. In: GOH, B., Price, R. (eds) Regulatory Issues in Organic Food Safety in the Asia Pacific. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3580-2_11
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