Measurement Equivalence of the Entrepreneurship, Professionalism, and Leadership Career Aspiration Scale

Abstract

Measurement equivalence is often neglected when conducting research. This is especially the case when scales are used in different contexts that share the same language but have different cultural backgrounds. In this chapter, we examined the measurement equivalence of Entrepreneurship, Professionalism, and Leadership (EPL) career aspiration scale (Chan et al., 2012), which measures EPL intent, motivation, and efficacy, across two English speaking countries with different cultures (Singapore and the United States). Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess equivalence. Overall, measurement equivalence analysis showed that most of the EPL sub-scales demonstrated configural and metric invariance but not scalar invariance. Despite commonality in language, we found that negatively-worded items were problematic and at times loaded poorly on the hypothesized latent factors. Our results highlight the importance of establishing measurement equivalence when importing scales across cultures and even between cultures that share a common language. The practical implications of these results for scale creation as well as future directions are discussed.

Appendix

Items that show at least metric invariance in both US and SG samples.

Scale	Sub-facet	Item content
EPL intent
1	E	I am definitely going to be an entrepreneur after my studies and am prepared to do anything to achieve that goal
2	E	I have a viable business idea and intend to start my own business soon after graduation
3	P	My main career goal is to be a technical expert, specialist or professional in my field of study
4	P	I would much prefer a career as a specialized expert or professional in a large and stable organization
5	P	I see myself continuously furthering or advancing in my specialization and professional/technical expertise throughout my working life
6	L	I plan to become a leader or manager in the near future
7	L	My main career goal is to rise up the ranks as a leader or manager in charge of others in organizations
EPL motivation
1	E AI	I am the kind of person who constantly has ideas about making money
2	E AI	Ever since I was a kid, I have dreamed about opening my own business
3	E AI	I like thinking of ways to create new products/and services for the market
4	E CL	The easiest and fastest way to make lots of money is to start my own business
5	E CL	The rewards and satisfactions of starting and running a business far outweigh the risks and sacrifices needed
6	E CL	I see working for myself as the best way to/escape the rigidity and routines of organizations
7	E SN	This country needs more entrepreneurs and I feel obliged to “give it a go”
8	E SN	I have a strong sense of duty to take over a/family-related business
9	E SN	I feel I ought to live up to my parents’ expectations to work in an entrepreneurial business environment
10	P AI	I like to be highly specialized and experienced in a specific area of expertise
11	P AI	I like others to depend on me for my highly/specialized knowledge, skills, and experience
12	P AI	I am the kind of person who strives to be highly specialized in my field of study
13	P CL	Being a highly specialized professional in my chosen field will assure me of a steady income
14	P CL	If I stick to becoming a professional in my field of study, I am guaranteed to make a good living
15	P SN	My parents hope that I will be a highly skilled/professional in my chosen area of expertise
16	P SN	It is a privilege and honour for me to excel in my chosen area of study
17	P SN	The best way to increase my country’s competitiveness is for people like me to become highly skilled professionals in my field of study
18	L AI	I have always enjoyed leading others and have assumed leadership roles whenever I could
19	L AI	I am the kind of person who likes influencing and managing people more than doing anything else
20	L CL	If I agree to lead a group, I would never expect any advantages or special benefits
21	L CL	I don’t expect to get any privileges if I agree to lead or be responsible for a project
22	L SN	If I am nominated to be in charge of a project/or a group, I feel it is an honor and privilege to ac…
23	L SN	I agree to lead whenever asked or nominated by the other group members
24	L SN	I feel that I have a duty to lead others if I am asked
EPL efficacy
1	E	Come up with ideas for products and services that may be needed in a market
2	E	Plan a business (including market analysis, pricing, financing/costs, and marketing/sales)
3	E	Build a network of contacts or partners who will support my business
4	E	Manage the financial assets and performance of a company or firm
5	E	Start a firm and keep it growing
6	E	Identify opportunities to start-up viable businesses
7	E	Design an effective campaign for marketing a new product or service
8	P	Become one of the best experts or professionals in my field of specialization
9	P	Teach or share with others my knowledge, experience, and expertise in my chosen area of work specialization
10	P	Conduct research to further advance knowledge in my area of expertise, specialization, or profession
11	P	Write research papers/books and make presentations at professional meetings
12	P	Constantly keep up with the advancing knowledge and skills in my area of expertise, specialization or profession
13	L	Plan, direct, organize and prepare others as to what they need to do
14	L	Take charge of decisions needed for a group or organization
15	L	Use rewards and punishments to get people to work harder
16	L	Develop and train future leaders for an organization

1. Note E = Entrepreneurship, P = Professional, and L = Leadership; AI = Affective/Identity, CL = Calculative, and SN = Social-normative