Examining the Influence of Individual, Social Cognitive and Environmental Factors on Students’ Entrepreneurial Intentions: Application of the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) Framework Within a Multidimensional Career Space

Abstract

Chan et al. (2011, 2012) proposed the Entrepreneurial, Professionalism, and Leadership (EPL) framework to characterize one’s lifelong career evolutions within the EPL dimensions. However, the current EPL framework does not specify how one’s EPL aspirations may develop, nor does it examine the relevant factors that may facilitate or hinder the development of EPL aspirations. This paper adopts the Social Cognitive Career Theory—to delineate how one’s career decisions—, as defined by the Entrepreneurial, Professionalism, and Leadership (EPL) career framework, can be facilitated and highlight factors that may affect the career choices. In particular, we examined the influence of individual, social cognitive, and environmental factors on the development of 396 university students’ entrepreneurial intentions and the process of career choice-making through structural equation modelling technique. Consistent with earlier findings, the results of this study found support for hypotheses concerning core SCCT variables (self-efficacy, outcome expectations, goals, and interests) while suggesting a need to include additional constructs (such as individual differences and contextual factors). Implications and suggestions for future research on the SCCT choice model and its application within the multidimensional EPL framework are discussed.

Appendices

Appendix 1

List of Hypotheses Examined in Present Study

The present study aims to validate and extend earlier findings on the SCCT choice model by applying them within the entrepreneurship domain. The following hypotheses were formulated and tested:

H1:

Entrepreneurial efficacy is positively related to entrepreneurial outcome expectations (path 1 in Fig. 15.1).

H2:

Entrepreneurial efficacy and outcome expectations are positively related to entrepreneurial interest (paths 2 and 3).

H3:

Entrepreneurial interest is positively related to entrepreneurial intention (path 4).

H4:

Entrepreneurial efficacy and outcome expectations are positively related to entrepreneurial intention (paths 5 and 6).

H5a:

Learning experiences is positively related to entrepreneurial efficacy and entrepreneurial outcome expectations (paths 7 and 8).

H5b:

Learning experiences is positively related to entrepreneurial intention (path 15).

H6a.:

Risk aversion is negatively related to learning experiences (path 9).

H6b:

Risk aversion is negatively related to perceived family support (path 11).

H6c:

Risk aversion is negatively related to entrepreneurial intention (path 13).

H6d:

Risk aversion is negatively related to entrepreneurial efficacy (path 14).

H7a:

Exposure to entrepreneurial role models is positively related to learning experiences (path 10).

H7b:

Exposure to entrepreneurial role models is positively related to entrepreneurial intention (path 16).

H8a:

Perceived family support is positively related to entrepreneurial intention (path 12).

H8b:

Perceived family support is positively related to entrepreneurial efficacy (path 17).

Appendix 2

Entrepreneurial Efficacy Scale

Instructions: Please use the scale below and rate how confident you are to perform the following tasks successfully. Indicate your answer on the right of each statement.

Scale:

1	2	3	4	5
Not at all confident	A little confident	Moderately confident	Fairly confident	Extremely confident

1	Come up with ideas for products and services that may be needed in a market	1	2	3	4	5
2	Plan a business (including market analysis, pricing, finances/costs, marketing/sales)	1	2	3	4	5
3	Build a network of contacts or partners who will support my business	1	2	3	4	5
4	Manage the financial assets and performance of a company or firm	1	2	3	4	5
5	Start a firm and keep it growing	1	2	3	4	5
6	Identify opportunities to start-up viable businesses	1	2	3	4	5
7	Design an effective campaign for market new product or service	1	2	3	4	5

Appendix 3

Entrepreneurial Outcome Expectations Scale

Instructions: Please read each statement carefully and choose the one answer that best describes your agreement or disagreement using the scale below. There are no “right or wrong” answers. Please answer honestly and frankly. Indicate your answer on the right of each statement.

Scale:

1	2	3	4	5
Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neither agree nor disagree	Agree	Strongly agree

1	Starting my own business allows me to provide work/service or a product that is uniquely mine	1	2	3	4	5
2	Starting a business allows me to create more work opportunities for my friends and relatives	1	2	3	4	5
3	Founding a business allows me to create more work opportunities for people in society	1	2	3	4	5
4	Being an entrepreneur provides me with the satisfaction that I desire at work	1	2	3	4	5
5	Being an entrepreneur allows me to meet with successful businessmen with whom I main gain valuable opportunities and experience	1	2	3	4	5
6	“Being my own boss” allow me to have the kind of working hours that I desire	1	2	3	4	5
7	Pursuing entrepreneurship allows me to pursue those leisure time activities and interests that I like	1	2	3	4	5
8	Being an entrepreneur provides me with the kind of lifestyle that I desire	1	2	3	4	5

Appendix 4

Entrepreneurial Intention Scale

Instructions: Please read each statement carefully and choose the one option that best describes your current feelings. There are no “right or wrong” answers. Please answer honestly and frankly. Indicate your answer on the right of each statement.

Scale:

1	2	3	4	5
Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neither agree nor disagree	Agree	Strongly agree

1	I am definitely going to be an entrepreneur after my studies and am prepared to do anything to achieve that goal	1	2	3	4	5
2	I will start my business in the next 5 years	1	2	3	4	5
3	I do not see myself taking over any business or buying any franchise in the future	1	2	3	4	5
4	I have a viable business idea and intend to start my own business soon after graduation	1	2	3	4	5
5	I will start my business in the next 10 years	1	2	3	4	5
6	When I have enough work experience and finances, I am certain to start my own business	1	2	3	4	5

Appendix 5

Entrepreneurial Interest Scale

Do you have any interests in any of the following entrepreneurship activities?

Check (√) all that apply:

• a. I am interested to get information about how to setup my own business

• b. I am keen to talk to the potential partners/sponsors and get help from them to start my own business.

• c. I am interest to participate in any entrepreneurship-related seminars/workshops/trainings even though I need to pay for it.

Appendix 6

Learning Experiences Scale

Have you ever engaged in any of the following entrepreneurship activities?

Check (√) all that apply:

• I have started or taken over a business that is still active today.

• I have taken some entrepreneurship-related courses in my studies.

• I have participated/enrolled in entrepreneurship training program(s)/workshop(s)/seminar(s) before.

• I have participated in entrepreneurship-related contest(s) before. (e.g. Ideas.Inc business competition or any other contests).

Appendix 7

Risk Aversion Scale

Instructions: Please read each statement carefully and choose the one option that best describes your current feelings. There are no “right or wrong” answers. Please answer honestly and frankly. Indicate your answer on the right of each statement.

Scale:

1	2	3	4	5
Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neither agree nor disagree	Agree	Strongly agree

1	I am a cautious person who generally avoids risks	1	2	3	4	5
2	I prefer to remain on a job that has problems that I know about rather than take the risks of working at a new job	1	2	3	4	5
3	I am not willing to take risks when choosing a job or a company to work for	1	2	3	4	5
4	I prefer a low risk/high security job with a steady salary over a job that offers high risks and high rewards	1	2	3	4	5
5	I always play it safe, even if it means occasionally losing out on a good opportunity	1	2	3	4	5
6	I view risk of losing a job to be avoided at all costs	1	2	3	4	5

Appendix 8

Perceived Family Support Scale

Instructions: Please answer the following questions about the family you grew up in.

• 1. To what extent has the family you grew up in given you information and contacts that helped you with your occupational choices?

  a. No information and/or contacts

  b. A little information and/or a few contacts

  c. Considerable information and/or many contacts

• 2. To what extent has the family you grew up in encouraged you to pursue your goals and/or plans for the future?

  a. No encouragement

  b. A little encouragement

  c. Considerable encouragement

• 3. To what extent has the family you grew up in been helpful when you have questions about educational or career-related issues?

  a. No help with questions

  b. A little help with questions

  c. Considerable help with questions

• 4. To what extent has the family you grew up in expressed pride in your educational or career-related accomplishments

  a. No expressed pride

  b. A little expressed pride

  c. Considerable expressed pride