Abstract
No universal legal or ethical regime governs research into or application of intelligent machine technology. AI and the corporation share common features of being human creations that, potentially, are not only difficult to control, but can be destructive of the interests of humanity. The metaphor of Dr Frankenstein’s monster is apt. If we do not learn from our errors in relation to the inadequate regulation of corporations to protect human rights, the future of AI and human rights is a grim one.
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Notes
- 1.
The lack of any universal policy approach is readily evident from the separate national and international initiatives underway. An overview is given in Dutton (2018). For the United Nations consultation process and initiatives to create a universal regime, see United Nations (2019) and UN News (2019). For the Australian Human Rights Commission White Paper, see Australian Human Rights Commission and World Economic Forum (2019). For the Canada-France Statement on Artificial Intelligence, see Government of Canada (2018). For the policy of the European Union on AI, see European Commission (2019b) For the United States policy, see Future of Life Institute (2019).
- 2.
See for example, Disruption Hub (2019).
- 3.
See references in note 1.
- 4.
See, eg, the application ‘Confession: A Roman Catholic App’ at this address: http://www.littleiapps.com/confession/.
- 5.
- 6.
- 7.
- 8.
See Shu (2014).
- 9.
See references at note 1.
- 10.
See references at note 1. See also Business and Human Rights Resource Centre (2019).
- 11.
- 12.
See Rochow (2018).
- 13.
- 14.
Ibid. See also Rochow (2018).
- 15.
Ibid. See also Bostrom, cited in Henderson (2014).
- 16.
The redundancy of humans in the wake of highly developed machine intelligence is a common trope of science-fiction literature and film. It drove the ambitions of the super computer, HAL 2000, in Stanley Kubrick’s film ‘2001: A Space Odyssey’ (1968), exemplified in the sequence when HAL tricks the astronauts into a spacewalk, during which HAL kills one and thwarts the survivor’s re-entry: Dave orders, ‘Open the pod bay door HAL’ to which HAL responds, ‘I’m afraid I can’t do that Dave’. For other examples of the trope, see Rochow (2018). It is also the subject a rich technical literature: Harari (2014), Bostrom (2014), Susskind and Susskind (2017: ch 1 and 2); Fukuyama (2002), Verbruggen (2017), Heskett (2017), Vaidhyanathan (2012, 2018), Kevin Kelly, The Inevitable: Understanding 12 Technological Forces That Will Shape Our Future, (2016, Penguin Books), Ashley (2017), Tegmark (2017), Foer (2017), Rouhiainen (2018), Gunkel (2017), Russell and Cohn (2012). See also Beduschi (2018).
- 17.
- 18.
- 19.
United Nations (1966) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 999 UNTS 171.
- 20.
Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides:
-
(1)
Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and freedom, either individually or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching.
-
(2)
No one shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice.
-
(3)
Freedom to manifest one's religion or beliefs may be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health or morals or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others.
-
(4)
The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal guardians to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions.
Compare Article 9 of the European Covenant on Human Rights:
-
(1)
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief, in worship, teaching practice and observance.
-
(2)
Freedom to manifest one’s religion or beliefs shall be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of public safety, for the protection of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.
-
(1)
- 21.
See Nussbaum (2008: 19–20), Langston (2001): 9, 173, 179–184. See also: Ahdar (2017): 185–213, Leigh (2018): 378–396, Cardus Religious Freedom Institute (2018). For the discussion on ‘conscience’ I am also indebted to Jacqueline Rochow, BA (Phil.), for discussions with her and her 2017 report, on file with the author: Rochow (2017). I am also very grateful for discussions with Professors Paul Babie and Suzanne Le Mire. See Howe and Le Mire (2019).
- 22.
See Harari (2018).
- 23.
- 24.
- 25.
558 U.S. 310 (2010).
- 26.
573 U.S. ___ (2014).
- 27.
- 28.
See Strassfeld (2008: 1019).
- 29.
288 U.S. 517, at 567 (1933).
- 30.
- 31.
United States v Microsoft Corporation 253 F.3d 34 (2001).
- 32.
As an example of the Friedman doctrine, see Friedman (1962).
- 33.
That is, corporations formed for purposes of trading or finance and not specific purpose corporations formed for charitable and like purposes.
- 34.
Then known as the ‘Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies’.
- 35.
Also known as the Honourable East India Company or British East India Company.
- 36.
Ferguson (2008): both companies, under the direction of John Law, contributed as causes of the French Revolution.
- 37.
Ferguson (2008: 129–138), where Ferguson gives an account of the monopolisation of the spice trade and Holland’s conquest of the Dutch East Indies.
- 38.
See HBC Heritage (2015) for a history of how it monopolised trade in Canadian resources.
- 39.
17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 518 (1819).
- 40.
See also Proprietors of Charles River Bridge v. Proprietors of, 36 U.S. 420 (1837) 36 U.S. 420 (Pet.).
- 41.
- 42.
- 43.
See data gathered by the World Bank in 2016, discussed in Inman (2016).
- 44.
Ibid. See also Wu (2018).
- 45.
Kainer (2018). See also papers of the colloquium held 1 February 2019 at the University of Heidelberg, including those of Justice François Biltgen of the European Court of Justice and Federal Industrial Court Judge Inken Gallner, published on Professor Kainer’s website at Abteilung Rechtswissenschaft, Universität Mannheim (2019). See also Egenberger v Evangelisches Werk für Diakonie und Entwicklung eV (Case C-414/16) and Stadt Wuppertal v Bauer and Willmeroth v Broßonn (C-569/16; C-570/16).
- 46.
See Jura Forum (undated).
- 47.
- 48.
- 49.
- 50.
Taken from Wu (2018: 15).
- 51.
288 U.S. 517 (1933).
- 52.
See Young (2016).
- 53.
Young (Young 2016: 1–37): comprised of the Catholics, major Protestant denominations, and the Mormons.
- 54.
Ibid.
- 55.
On the peculiarity of American ‘Christianity’ as a form of Gnosticism distinct from forms of Christianity in Europe, see Bloom (1992).
- 56.
See Cooke (1997).
- 57.
Kainer (2018); Egenberger v Evangelisches Werk für Diakonie und Entwicklung eV (Case C-414/16); and Stadt Wuppertal v Bauer and Willmeroth v Broßonn (C-569/16; C-570/16).
- 58.
For the broad definition of CSR, see Careers Service, Careers Service, University of Edinburgh (2019); The EU's CSR policy is at Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, Federal Republic of Germany (undated); for Germany’s CSR policy and the concept of Mittelstand for smaller enterprises, see Bauer (2013).
- 59.
See Bauer (2013).
- 60.
As suggested by 2020 US Presidential candidate, Elizabeth Warren: see Durkin (2018).
- 61.
See summary at United Nations Business and Human Rights Resource Centre (undated).
- 62.
See African Group, the Arab Group, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Kyrgyzstan, Cuba, Nicaragua, Bolivia, Venezuela, Peru and Ecuador (2013).
- 63.
See United Nations Business and Human Rights Resource Centre (2017).
- 64.
558 U.S. 310 (2010).
- 65.
565 U.S. 171 (2012). Note that in Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church and School the religious body was an unincorporated association.
- 66.
573 U.S. ___ (2014).
- 67.
584 U.S. ___ (2018). Note that in Masterpiece, ‘Masterpiece’ was a corporation though nothing is made of this in the opinions delivered by the Court.
- 68.
Pub. L. No. 103–141, 107 Stat. 1488 (November 16, 1993), codified at 42 U.S.C. § 2000bb through 42 U.S.C. § 2000bb-4.
- 69.
Taken from Forbes listing: https://www.forbes.com/companies/hobby-lobby-stores/#4158ca996cee.
- 70.
Cf. Queensland Wire v BHP (1989) 167 CLR 177; [1989] HCA 6, in which the second respondent, Australian Wire Industries Pty Ltd (AWI) was a wholly owned subsidiary of the first respondent, BHP. BHP is and was then one the largest corporations in Australia, with sizeable international operations. Apart from the character of AWI’s shareholder, AWI also held the monopoly in a fencing product, ‘Y-bar’, for which there was a single product market. AWI, form its strategic position as a monopolist, with BHP as a monopsonist, was able to refuse to deal in Y-bar with Queensland Wire. The High Court held unanimously that both respondents held substantial market power which they had used in refusing to deal with Queensland Wire. They both contravened the anti-competitive provisions of s.46 of the then Trade Practices Act. Even if ‘conscience’ were to provide the basis for some form of defence to the s.46 claim of anti-competitive conduct, it is not at all how that conscience would be ascertained.
- 71.
- 72.
Ibid.
- 73.
494 U.S. 872 (1990).
- 74.
I am grateful for the discussions with Professor Frank Ravitch on these points.
- 75.
- 76.
- 77.
See Part 1.1, above. See also, Rochow (2018).
- 78.
- 79.
- 80.
See Nowak (2010).
- 81.
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
2. A robot must obey orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.
- 82.
See note 1, above.
- 83.
See note 1 above. Note the euphemistic tone of UN Secretary-General António Guterres: Despite countless ‘headwinds’ and ‘ills’, the United Nations has ‘made a real difference’ in 2018 and will need to achieve even more in 2019, as the planet faces ‘a world of trouble’.
- 84.
Compare the United Nations’ Future of Life Institute: Future of Life Institute (undated: b).
- 85.
Rochow (2018).
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Rochow QC, N. (2020). Immortal Beings Without Soul or Conscience: Toward a Corporate and an AI Ethic. In: Babie, P., Sarre, R. (eds) Religion Matters. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2489-9_2
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