Abstract
In this chapter, the concepts of virtual water and water footprint were introduced comprehensively. In addition, the studies on both virtual water and water footprint were summarized based on an extensive literature reviews.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Feng, K. S., et al. (2014). Virtual scarce water in China. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(14), 7704–7713.
Allan, J. A. (2003). Virtual water – The water, food, and trade nexus useful concept or misleading metaphor? Water International, 28, 106–113.
Hoekstra, A. Y., & Hung, P. Q. (2005). Globalisation of water resources: International virtual water flows in relation to crop trade. Global Environmental Change Human and Policy Dimensions, 15, 45–56.
Chapagain, A. K., Hoekstra, A. Y., & Savenije, H. H. G. (2006). Water saving through international trade of agricultural products. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 10, 455–468.
Hoekstra, A. Y., & Chapagain, A. K. (2007). Water footprints of nations: Water use by people as a function of their consumption pattern. Water Resources Management, 21, 35–48.
Ma, J., Hoekstra, A. Y., Wang, H., Chapagain, A. K., & Wang, D. (2006). Virtual versus real water transfers within China. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 361, 835–842.
Liu, W. H., Zhao, J. Z., Deng, H. B., Qiu, J., Ke, B., & Zhang Q. X. (2005). Water-Food trade: Virtual water literature review. China Population, Resources and Environment, 15(3), 129–134 (in Chinese).
Fader, M., et al. (2010). Virtual water content of temperate cereals and maize: Present and potential future patterns. Journal of Hydrology, 384(3–4), 218–231.
Hoekstra, A. Y., & Chapagain, A. K. (2007). The water footprints of Morocco and the Netherlands: Global water use as a result of domestic consumption of agricultural commodities. Ecological Economics, 64(1), 143–151.
Chapagain, A. K., et al. (2006). The water footprint of cotton consumption: An assessment of the impact of worldwide consumption of cotton products on the water resources in the cotton producing countries. Ecological Economics, 60(1), 186–203.
Zhang, L. J., et al. (2014). Determination of virtual water content of rice and spatial characteristics analysis in China. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 18(6), 2103–2111.
Wang, H. R., & Wang, Y. (2009). An input-output analysis of virtual water uses of the three economic sectors in Beijing. Water International, 34(4), 451–467.
Long, A. H., Xu, Z. M., & Zhang, Z. Q. (2004). Theory and method of virtual water: A case study of Northwest China. Advances in Earth Science, 19(4), 577–584.
Liu, J. G., Zehnder, A. J. B., & Yang, H. (2009). Global consumptive water use for crop production: The importance of green water and virtual water. Water Resources Research, W05428, 1–15.
Zhang, Y., et al. (2016). Virtual water flows in the international trade of agricultural products of China. Science of the Total Environment, 557, 1–11.
Dietzenbacher, E., & Velazquez, E. (2007). Analysing Andalusian virtual water trade in an input – Output framework. Regional Studies, 41(2), 185–196.
Chapagain, A. K., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2008). The global component of freshwater demand and supply: An assessment of virtual water flows between nations as a result of trade in agricultural and industrial products. Water International, 33(1), 19–32.
Wichelns, D. (2005). The virtual water metaphor enhances policy discussions regarding scarce resources. Water International, 30(4), 428–437.
Zhao, F. Z., Liu, W. H., & Deng, H. B. (2005). The potential role of virtual water in solving water scarcity and food security problems in China. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 12(4), 419–428.
El-Sadek, A. (2010). Virtual water trade as a solution for water scarcity in Egypt. Water Resources Management, 24(11), 2437–2448.
Velazquez, E. (2007). Water trade in Andalusia. Virtual water: An alternative way to manage water use. Ecological Economics, 63(1), 201–208.
Shuval, H. (2007). Virtual water’ in the water resource management of the arid Middle East. In H. Shuval & H. Dweik (Eds.), Water resources in the Middle East: Israel-Palestinian water issues – From conflict to cooperation (Vol. 2, pp. 133–139).
Nassar, Y. H. (2007). Virtual water trade as a policy instrument for achieving water security in Palestine. In H. Shuval & H. Dweik (Eds.), Water resources in the Middle East: Israel-Palestinian water issues – From conflict to cooperation (Vol. 2, pp. 141–146).
Hoekstra, A. Y., Chapagain, A. K., Aldaya, M. M., & Mekonnen, M. M. (2011). The water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard. London: Earthscan.
Hoekstra, A. Y. (2009). Human appropriation of natural capital: A comparison of ecological footprint and water footprint analysis. Ecological Economics, 68(7), 1963–1974.
Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2011). The green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 15(5), 1577–1600.
Gerbens-Leenes, W., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2012). The water footprint of sweeteners and bio-ethanol. Environment International, 40, 202–211.
Chapagain, A. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2011). The blue, green and grey water footprint of rice from production and consumption perspectives. Ecological Economics, 70(4), 749–758.
Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2012). A global assessment of the water footprint of farm animal products. Ecosystems, 15(3), 401–415.
Zeng, Z., et al. (2012). Assessing water footprint at river basin level: A case study for the Heihe River basin in Northwest China. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 16(8), 2771–2781.
Zhao, X., et al. (2010). Applying the input-output method to account for water footprint and virtual water trade in the Haihe River basin in China. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(23), 9150–9156.
Hoekstra, A. Y., & Chapagain, A. K. (2007). Water footprints of nations: Water use by people as a function of their consumption pattern. In E. Craswell et al. (Eds.), Integrated assessment of water resources and global change (pp. 35–48).
Zhang, Z. Y., Shi, M. J., & Yang, H. (2012). Understanding Beijing’s water challenge: A decomposition analysis of changes in Beijing’s water footprint between 1997 and 2007. Environmental Science & Technology, 46(22), 12373–12380.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Xu, M., Li, C. (2020). The Concepts of Virtual Water and Water Footprint. In: Application of the Water Footprint: Water Stress Analysis and Allocation. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0234-7_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0234-7_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-15-0233-0
Online ISBN: 978-981-15-0234-7
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)