Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Controversies over the Nanjing Massacre

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The 1937 – 1938 Nanjing Atrocities

  • 495 Accesses

Abstract

With the judgment of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, it seemed that the Nanjing Massacre case was considered settled, and a page of history was turned over, with few apparent complaints from the Japanese at the time. However, with the West Berlin crisis, conflicts with the Soviet Union, and the Communist victory in China in 1949, geopolitics changed dramatically. As a result, the United States reversed its course by setting free many of the Japanese war criminals. In Circular No. 5 of March 7, 1950, which is also known as the Fifth Directive, Douglas MacArthur “established in Tokyo a three-man parole board authorized to reduce prison sentences of Japanese war criminals, held in Japan.” Concerning eligibility for parole, the document stipulates:

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    “Russians Protest Japanese Paroles,” NYT, May 13, 1950, p. 8.

  2. 2.

    The document’s second paragraph goes as follows: “2. Confinement credit. All time spent in confinement, either as a war criminal suspect or war criminal, will be credited to the sentence as ordered executed, excepting pre-trial confinement previously ordered remitted. Detention as a prisoner-of-war will not be credited.”

  3. 3.

    General Headquarters, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, “Clemency for War Criminals, SCAP Circular No. 5, 7 March 1950,” the enclosure to Far Eastern Commission’s “Note by the Secretary General,” March 30, 1950, FEC-314/18, Folder 5 (Parole Board: SCAP Parole System), Box 5 (Records relating to Japanese War Crimes, 1943–1960), Records of the Legal Adviser relating to War Crimes (Lot File No. 61 D33), RG59, National Archives II.

  4. 4.

    “Russians Protest Japanese Paroles,” NYT, May 13, 1950, p. 8. and “M’Arthur Scored on Parole Policy,” NYT, May 16, 1950, p. 4.

  5. 5.

    “Soviet Note of May 11, 1950,” Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 23, July 10, 1950, pp. 60–61.

  6. 6.

    “U.S. Note of June 8, 1950,” Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 23, July 10, 1950, p. 60.

  7. 7.

    “Nine More Japanese Paroled,” NYT, November 7, 1950, p. 6.

  8. 8.

    “Treaty of Peace with Japan,” September 8, 1951, San Francisco, United Nations Treaty Series, 1952, Vol. 136, (No. 1832), p. 56.

  9. 9.

    “20 More Japanese Paroled,” NYT, January 13, 1952, p. 19. According to another news report of August 17, 1952, in NYT (page 7) under the title “U.S. to Review Cases of Japan War Criminals,” “Prior to the Peace Treaty the American-controlled Allied Occupation of Japan had paroled 892 war criminals sentenced by them.” The Peace Treaty was signed on Sept. 8, 1951. Apparently, the figure 575 refers to the number of Japanese war criminals who had been released on parole since the circular of March 7, 1950, issued.

  10. 10.

    Harry S. Truman, “Executive Order 10393, September 4, 1952,” Federal Register, Vol. 17, No, 175, September 6, 1952, p. 8,083.

  11. 11.

    紹伊 (Shao Yi), “没齒難忘仇和恨 (The enmity and hatred that can never be forgotten),” Xinhua Daily, February 26, 1951, p. 2.

  12. 12.

    锦輝 (Jin Hui), “一個不屈的姑娘 (An Undaunted girl),” Xinhua Daily, March 1, 1951, p. 2.

  13. 13.

    本報記者 (The newspapers correspondent), “追記日寇南京大屠殺的血海深仇 (A retrospective account of the huge debt of blood concerning the Nanjing Massacre committed by Japanese invaders),” Xinhua Daily, February 26, 1951, p. 5. The article was digested and republished in Beijing in the Volume 3, Issue 5 of 新華月報 (Xinhua Monthly) on March 25, 1951, pp. 988–991.

  14. 14.

    郭士杰 (Guo Shijie), 日寇侵華暴行錄 (The Records of the Atrocities Committed by the Japanese Invading China), Beijing: 聨合書店 (The Union Bookstore), 1951.

  15. 15.

    高兴祖 (Gao Xingzu), 日军侵华暴行: 南京大屠杀 (The Atrocities Committed by the Japanese Troops Invading China: The Nanjing Massacre), Shanghai: 上海人民出版社 (Shanghai People’s Publishing House), 1985. The Japanese version: 高興祖著, 牧野篤訳 (translated by Atsushi Makino), 南京大虐殺: 日本軍の中国侵略と暴行, Tokyo: 日本教職員組合 (Japan Teachers and Staff Union), 1986.

  16. 16.

    島田勝已 (Katsumi Shimada), “南京攻略戦と虐殺事件 (The Nanjing Battle and the Massacre Incident),” 特集人物往来 (Special Issue of Jinbutsu Orai), June 1956, p. 111.

  17. 17.

    今井正剛 (Masatake Imai), “南京城内の大量殺人 (The Mass Killings inside Nanjing),” 特集文藝春秋 (Special Issue of Bungeishunju Magazine), December 1956, pp. 154–159.

  18. 18.

    Ibid., pp. 156–157. Another version of the English translation can be found in Katsuichi Honda, The Nanjing Massacre, pp. 184–185.

  19. 19.

    田中正明 (Masaaki Tanaka), “南京虐殺事件と松井石根日記 (The Nanjing Massacre Incident and Iwane Matsui’s Diary),” 日本週報 (Japan Weekly), Feb. 25, 1957, pp. 3–10.

  20. 20.

    秦賢助 (Kensuke Hata), “捕虜の血にまみれた白虎部隊 (The White Tiger Troops Smeared with Captives’ Blood),” 日本週報 (Japan Weekly), Feb. 25, 1957, pp. 13–15.

  21. 21.

    両角業作 (Gyosaku Morozumi), 序 (Introduction), to 秦賢助 (Kensuke Hata)’s 白虎部隊 (The White Tiger Troops), Tokyo: 平凡社 (Heibonsha), 1939, p. 1.

  22. 22.

    Kensuke Hata, 白虎部隊 (The White Tiger Troops), Tokyo: 平凡社 (Heibonsha), 1939, pp. 183–184.

  23. 23.

    Kensuke Hata, “The White Tiger Troops Smeared with Captives’ Blood,” pp. 13–14.

  24. 24.

    Kensuke Hata, The White Tiger Troops, pp. 182–183.

  25. 25.

    堀越文男 (Fumio Horigoshi), “堀越文男陣中日记 (Field Diary of Fumio Horigoshi),” in NMIA, p. 78.

  26. 26.

    新島淳良 (Atsuyoshi Niijima), “雨花台、南京虐殺の話をきく (Yuhua Terrace and we learned about the Nanjing Massacre),” 大安 (Daian), Vol. 13 (September 1967), pp. 2–6.

  27. 27.

    Atsuyoshi Niijima, 南京大虐殺 (The Nanjing Massacre), 日中友好協會 (正統) 永福支部 (Eifuku Branch, Japan-China Friendship Association), 1971.

  28. 28.

    Atsuyoshi Niijima, “わが南京大虐殺 (The Nanjing Massacre I know about),” 情况 (Situation), August 1971.

  29. 29.

    Atsuyoshi Niijima, “立体構成—南京大虐殺 (The three-dimensional structure—The Nanjing Massacre),” 新評 (New Review), Vol.18 (August 1971), pp. 48–57.

  30. 30.

    洞富雄 (Tomio Hora), 近代戦史の謎 (The Mystery of the History of Modern Wars), Tokyo: 人物往来社 (Jinbutsu Ōraisha), 1967.

  31. 31.

    Tomio Hora, 南京事件 (The Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: 新人物往来社 (Shin Jinbutsu Oraisha), 1972.

  32. 32.

    Tomio Hora, 日中戦争資料: 南京事件 (Sino-Japanese War Source Materials: The Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: 河出書房新社 (Kawade Shobō Shinsha), 1973.

  33. 33.

    “隠されつづけた南京大虐殺の記録 (Record of continued hidden Nanjing Massacre),” 潮 (Ushio), July 1971, pp. 112–156.

  34. 34.

    本多勝一 (Katsuichi Honda), “中国の旅 (Travels in China),” 朝日新闻 夕刊 (Asahi Shimbun Evening Edition), November 5, 1971, p. 2.

  35. 35.

    Katsuichi Honda, 中国の旅 (Travels in China), Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1972. Apart from the four parts appeared in Asahi Shimbun installments, the other 12 parts are “The Chinese impression of the militarist Japan,” “At the former Jiayou (佳友) Factory,” “Correction facility,” “Human beings for bacteriological tests and vivisections,” “Fushun—The history of the invaded,” “Massacre for epidemic prevention,” “Anshan and former Kubota (久保田) Foundary,” “Nearby the Marco Polo Bridge,” “The journey of the slave boat carrying forced labors,” “Battlefields at Shanghai,” “Harbor,” and “The true stories of ‘expeditions’ and ‘bombings.’”

  36. 36.

    鈴木二郎 (Jiro Suzuki), “私はあの「南京の悲劇」を目撃した (I witnessed that “Nanjing tragedy”),” 丸 (Maru), Vol. 24, No. 1 (November 1971), pp. 96–97.

  37. 37.

    The transliteration for the Chinese phrase “你, 来, 来 (You, come, come).”

  38. 38.

    志志目彰 (Akira Shishime), “日中戦争の追憶 (A Recollection of Sino-Japanese War),” 中國 (China), December 1971, pp. 43–44.

  39. 39.

    イザヤ・ペンダサン (Isaiah Ben-Dasan), “朝日新聞の「ゴメンナサイ」(Asahi Shimbun ‘I am sorry’), 諸君! (Gentlemen!), January 1972, pp. 166–179.

  40. 40.

    森恭三 (Kyouzou Mori), “本書によせて (Preface to this book),” in 中国の旅 (Travels in China), Tokyo: 朝日新聞社 (Asahi Shinbunsha), 1972. p. vi.

  41. 41.

    Katsuichi Honda, “イザヤ-ベンダサン氏への公開状 (An Open Letter to Isaiah Ben-Da-san),” 諸君! (Gentlemen!), February 1972, p. 211.

  42. 42.

    イザヤ・ペンダサン (Isaiah Ben-Dasan), “本多勝一様への返信 (A reply to Mr. Katsuichi Honda),” 諸君! (Gentlemen!), March 1972, p. 51.

  43. 43.

    Katsuichi Honda, “雑音でいじめられる側の眼 (Noise abuse to my eyes),” 諸君! (Gentlemen!), April 1972, p. 152.

  44. 44.

    イザヤ・ペンダサン (Isaiah Ben-Dasan), “本多勝一様への追伸 (A postscript to Mr. Katsuichi Honda),” 諸君! (Gentlemen!), April 1972, pp. 132–143.

  45. 45.

    山本七平 (Shichihei Yamamoto), 私の中の日本軍 (Our Japanese Troops), Tokyo: 文藝春秋 (Bungei Shunjū), 1975.

  46. 46.

    鈴木明 (Akira Suzuki), “南京大虐殺のまぼろし (The Illusion of the Nanjing Massacre), 諸君! (Gentlemen!), April 1972, pp. 186–187.

  47. 47.

    Akira Suzuki, “向井少尉はなぜ殺されたか:南京「百人斬り」のまぼろし (Why was Sub-Lieutenant Mukai killed: The illusion of the Nanjing ‘100-Man Killing Contest’),” 諸君! (Gentlemen!), August 1972, pp. 178–203.

  48. 48.

    Akira Suzuki, “向井少尉は何故殺されたか·補遺 (Why was Sub-Lieutenant Mukai Killed·An Appendix),” 諸君! (Gentlemen!), October 1972, pp. 108–115.

  49. 49.

    Akira Suzuki, “南京·昭和十二年十二月 (Nanjing·December 1937),” 諸君! (Gentlemen!), December 1972, pp. 152–170, and “南京·昭和十二年十二月(続) (Nanjing·December 1937 (Continue)),” 諸君! (Gentlemen!), January 1973, pp. 232–259.

  50. 50.

    Akira Suzuki, 南京大虐殺のまぼろし (The Illusion of the Nanjing Massacre), Tokyo: 文藝春秋 (Bungei Shunjū), 1973.

  51. 51.

    Tomio Hora, “軍隊教育に培われた青年将校の精神構造—「百人斬り競争」は「事実」であったか「語られた事実」であったか (The mental structure of young officers formed by military education—‘The 100-man killing contest’ was a ‘fact’ or a ‘told fact’).” 歷史評論 (History Review), No. 269 (November 1972), pp. 30–48.

  52. 52.

    Tomio Hora, “南京事件と史料批判 (上), (The Nanjing Incident and Criticism of Historical Sources, Part One).” 歷史評論 (History Review), No. 277 (June 1973), pp. 106–118, and “南京事件と史料批判 (下), (The Nanjing Incident and Criticism of Historical Sources, Part Two).” 歷史評論 (History Review), No. 278 (July 1973), pp. 64–83.

  53. 53.

    Tomio Hora, 南京大虐殺: 「まぼろし」化工作批判 (The Nanjing Massacre: Criticism of the Illusion), Tokyo: 現代史出版会 (Gendaishi Shuppankai), 1975.

  54. 54.

    Katsuichi Honda, ペンの陰謀: あるいはペテンの論理を分析する (The Conspiracy of the Pen: Or the analysis of the logics), Tokyo: 潮出版社 (Ushio Shuppansha), 1977.

  55. 55.

    Tomio Hora, 決定版南京大虐殺 (The Confirmed Edition of the Nanjing Massacre), Tokyo: 德間書店 (Tokuma Shoten), 1982.

  56. 56.

    In the original text, the date is Lunar Calendar November 9, 1937, which is December 11, 1937.

  57. 57.

    Tracy Dahlby, “Japan’s Texts Revise WWII: ‘Invasion’ Becomes ‘Advance;’ Asians Become Irate,” Washington Post, July 28, 1982, pp. A1 & A14.

  58. 58.

    Ibid., p. A14, “Japanese Stands by Revisions in Texts That Irritate China,” NYT, Aug. 11, 1982, p. A8, “Seoul Bids Japan Act at Once to Correct Changes in Texts,” NYT, Aug. 25, 1982, p. A4, and Henry Scott Stokes, “Japan Pledges Textbook Revision,” NYT, Aug. 27, 1982, p. A2.

  59. 59.

    侵华日军南京大屠杀史料编委会、南京图书馆 (The Committee on the Source Materials Relating to the Nanjing Massacre Committed by the Japanese Troops Invading China and Nanjing Municipal Library), 1937. 12. 13-侵华日军南京大屠杀史料 (Source Materials Relating to the Horrible Massacre Committed by the Japanese Troops in Nanjing in December 1937), 江苏古籍出版社 (Jiangsu Archives Press), 1985.

  60. 60.

    中国第二历史档案馆、南京市档案馆 (The Second Historical Archives of China and Nanjing Municipal Archives), 1937. 12. 13-侵华日军南京大屠杀档案 (Archival Documents Relating to the Horrible Massacre Committed by the Japanese Troops in Nanjing in December 1937), 江苏古籍出版社 (Jiangsu Archives Press), 1987.

  61. 61.

    侵华日军南京大屠杀史料编委会 (The Committee on the Source Materials Relating to the Nanjing Massacre Committed by the Japanese Troops Invading China), 侵华日军南京大屠杀史稿 (Draft Manuscript of the History Relating to the Horrible Massacre Committed by the Japanese Troops in Nanjing in December 1937), 江苏古籍出版社 (Jiangsu Archives Press), 1987.

  62. 62.

    朱成山 (Zhu Chengshan), 侵华日军南京大屠杀幸存者证言集 (A Collection of Testimonies by the Survivors of the Nanjing Massacre Committed by the Japanese Troops Invading China), 南京大学出版社 (Nanjing University Press), 1994. The Japanese version: 侵華日軍南京大屠殺遇難同胞紀念館編, 加藤実訳 (translated by Minoru Katō), この事実を...:「南京大虐殺」生存者証言集, 松戶 (Matsudo): ストーク (Sutōku), 2000.

  63. 63.

    田中正明 (Masaaki Tanaka), 「南京虐殺」の虚構―松井大将の日記を巡つて (The Fabrication of “the Nanjing Massacre”: Reading through the Diary of General Iwane Matsui), Tokyo: 日本教文社 (Nihon Kyōbunsha), 1984, p. 353.

  64. 64.

    松井石根大将の陣中日誌 (The Battlefield Diary of General Iwane Matsui), ed. Masaaki Tanaka, Tokyo: 芙蓉書房 (Fuyō Shobō), 1985.

  65. 65.

    Masaaki Tanaka, The Fabrication of ‘the Nanjing Massacre,’ p. 16.

  66. 66.

    Enclosure No. 6 to the report “Conditions at Nanking, January 1938.”

  67. 67.

    Masaaki Tanaka, The Fabrication of ‘the Nanjing Massacre,’ p. 309.

  68. 68.

    三國志 (Records of the Three Kingdoms), the historical record of the Three Kingdom period (184–280 A.D.), is one of China’s 24-Dynasty historical records. It records the historical events of the later years of East Han Dynasty (東漢末年, 184–220 A.D.), Wei Kingdom (魏, 220–265 A.D.), Wu Kingdom (吴, 222–280 A.D.), and Shu Kingdom (蜀, 221–263 A.D.). It was written by Chen Shou (陳壽) in 289 A.D.

  69. 69.

    Masaaki Tanaka, The Fabrication of ‘the Nanjing Massacre,’ p. 248.

  70. 70.

    Tien-Wang-Su is an old transliteration form for Tianwangsi (天王寺).

  71. 71.

    Pritchard and Zaide, The Tokyo War Crimes Trial, Vol. 2, Proceedings of the Tribunal, pp. 2583–2589.

  72. 72.

    “「南京大虐殺」克明に 従軍兵士の手帳発見 (“The Nanjing Massacre” elaborated faithfully, army soldier's diaries discovered),” 朝日新聞 (Asahi Shimbun), July 28, 1984, p. 22.

  73. 73.

    “南京虐殺、現場の心情 宮崎で発見元從軍兵士の日記 (The Nanjing massacre and feelings on the spot, the diary of a former soldier discovered in Miyazaki),” Asahi Shimbun, Aug. 5, 1984, p. 22.

  74. 74.

    “元陸軍伍長、スケッチで証言, 南京捕虜一万余人虐殺 (Former Army squad leader and a sketch provide testimony: More than ten thousand prisoners of war were massacred at Nanjing),” 每日新聞 (Mainich Shimbun), Aug. 5, 1984, p. 22.

  75. 75.

    日中戦争史資料編集委員会 (The Editorial Committee of the Sino-Japanese War History Source Materials), 日中戦争史資料 8 南京事件 I and 日中戦争史資料 9 南京事件 II (Source Material of the Sino-Japanese War History Vol. 8, the Nanjing Incident I and Source Material of the Sino-Japanese War History Vol. 9, the Nanjing Incident II), Tokyo: 河出書房新社 (Kawade Shobō Shinsha), 1973.

  76. 76.

    南京事件調査研究会 (Association of Investigation Research on the Nanjing Incident), 南京事件資料集 (A Collection of the Nanjing Incident Primary Sources), Tokyo: 青木書店 (Aoki Bookstore), 1992.

  77. 77.

    ジョン·ラーベ (John Rabe), 南京の真実: The Diary of John Rabe (The Truth of Nanjing: The Diary of John Rabe), 平野卿子訳 (Translated by Kyōko Hirano), Tokyo: 講談社 (Kōdansha), 1997.

  78. 78.

    ミニー·ヴォートリン (Minnie Vautrin), 南京事件の日々—— ミニー·ヴォートリン日記 (Daily Record of the Nanjing Incident: Minnie Vautrin Diaries), 岡田良之助, 伊原陽子訳 (Translated by Ryōnosuke Okada and Yōko Ihara), Tokyo: 大月書店 (Ōtsuki Book-store), 1999.

  79. 79.

    石田勇治 (Yūji Ishida), 笠原十九司 (Tokushi Kasahara), 吉田裕 (Yutaka Yoshida), 資料 ドイツ外交官の見た南京事件 (Source Material: The Nanjing Incident Witnessed by the German Diplomats), 石田勇治訳 (Translated by Yūji Ishida), Tokyo: 大月書店 (Ōtsuki Bookstore), 2001.

  80. 80.

    下里正樹 (Masaki Shimozato), 隠された聯隊史 (The Concealed Regiment History), Tokyo: 青木書店 (Aoki Bookstore), 1987 and 1988.

  81. 81.

    井口和起 (Iguchi Kazuki), 木阪順一郎 (Junichiro Kisaka), and 下里正樹 (Masaki Shimozato), 南京事件: 京都師団関係資料集 (The Nanjing Incident: Kyoto Division Related Source Materials), Tokyo: 青木書店 (Aoki Bookstore), 1989.

  82. 82.

    小原孝太郎 (Kōtarō Kohara), 日中戦争従軍日記: 一輜重兵の戦場体験 (A Field Diary of the Sino-Japanese War: The Battlefield Experiences of a Logistics Soldier), ed. by 江口圭一 (Keiichi Eguchi), 芝原拓自 (Takuji Shibahara), 京都 (Kyoto) : 法律文化社 (Law and Culture Press), 1989.

  83. 83.

    小野賢二 (Kenji Ono), 藤原彰 (Akira Fujiwara) and 本多勝一 (Katsuichi Honda), 南京大虐殺を記錄した皇軍兵士たち:第十三師団山田支隊兵士の陣中日記 (The Nanjing Massacre Recorded by the Imperial Army Soldiers: The Field Diaries by the Soldiers of the Yamada Detachment, the 13th Division), Tokyo: 大月書店 (Ōtsuki Bookstore), 1996.

  84. 84.

    松岡環 (Tamaki Matsuoka), 南京戦: 閉ざされた記憶を尋ねて (The Nanjing Campaign: In search of the Sealed Memories), Tokyo: 社会評論社 (Shakai Hyōronsha), 2002.

  85. 85.

    笠原十九司 (Tokushi Kasahara), 南京事件: 体験者27人が語る (The Nanjing Incident: The Testimonies by 27 Survivors), Tokyo: 高文研 (Kōbunken), 2006.

  86. 86.

    Tamaki Matsuoka, 南京戦: 閉ざされた記憶を尋ねて (The Nanjing Campaign: In search of the Sealed Memories), Tokyo:社会評論社 (Tokyo: Shakai Hyoronsha), 2002.

  87. 87.

    Tamaki Matsuoka, 南京戦: 切りさかれた受難者の魂 (The Nanjing Campaign: The Severed Soul of the Victims), Tokyo: 社会評論社 (Shakai Hyōronsha), 2003.

  88. 88.

    Akira Fujiwara, 南京大虐殺 (The Nanjing Massacre), Tokyo: 岩波書店 (Iwanami Bookstore), 1985.

  89. 89.

    Akira Fujiwara, 南京の日本軍: 南京大虐殺とその背景 (The Japanese Troops in Nanjing: The Background of the Nanjing Massacre), Tokyo: 大月書店 (Ōtsuki Bookstore), 1997.

  90. 90.

    Akira Fujiwara, 南京事件をどうみるか:日・中・米研究者による検証 (How the Nanjing Massacre is Viewed: Examination by Japanese, Chinese and American Researchers), Tokyo: 青木書店 (Aoki Bookstore), 1998.

  91. 91.

    吉田裕 (Yutaka Yoshida), 天皇の軍隊と南京事件 (Emperor’s Troops and the Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: 青木書店 (Aoki Bookstore), 1985.

  92. 92.

    笠原十九司 (Tokushi Kasahara), アジアの中の日本軍 (Japanese Troops in Asia), Tokyo: 大月書店 (Ōtsuki Bookstore), 1994.

  93. 93.

    Tokushi Kasahara, 南京難民区の百日 (One Hundred Days in the Nanjing Safety Zone), Tokyo: 岩波書店 (Iwanami Bookstore), 1995.

  94. 94.

    Tokushi Kasahara, 南京事件 (The Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: 岩波書店 (Iwanami Bookstore), 1997.

  95. 95.

    Tokushi Kasahara, 南京事件と三光作戦 (The Nanjing Incident and the Campaigns for Three Alls), Tokyo: 大月書店 (Ōtsuki Bookstore), 1999.

  96. 96.

    Tokushi Kasahara, 南京事件と日本人 (The Nanjing Incident and the Japanese), Tokyo: 柏書房 (Kashiwa Shobō), 2002.

  97. 97.

    Tokushi Kasahara, 南京事件論争史 (The History of the Debates over the Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: 平凡社 (Heibonsha), 2007.

  98. 98.

    Tokushi Kasahara, 「百人斬り競争」と南京事件 (“The 100-Man Killing Contest” and the Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: 大月書店 (Ōtsuki Bookstore), 2008.

  99. 99.

    津田道夫 (Michio Tsuda), 南京大虐殺と日本人の精神構造 (The Nanjing Massacre and the Spiritual Structure of the Japanese), Tokyo: 社会評論社 (Shakai Hyōronsha), 1995.

  100. 100.

    Tomio Hora, 藤原彰 (Akira Fujiwara) and Katsuichi Honda, 南京事件を考える (The Nanjing Incident Considered), Tokyo: 大月書店 (Ōtsuki Bookstore), 1987.

  101. 101.

    Tomio Hora, Akira Fujiwara and Katsuichi Honda, 南京大虐殺の現場へ (The Nanjing Massacre Sites), Tokyo: 朝日新聞社 (Asahi Shimbunsha), 1988.

  102. 102.

    Tomio Hora, Akira Fujiwara and Katsuichi Honda, 南京大虐殺の研究 (Research on the Nanjing Massacre), Tokyo: 晚聲社 (Banseisha), 1992.

  103. 103.

    Tokushi Kasahara and 吉田裕 (Yutaka Yoshida), 現代歴史学と南京事件 (Modern History Studies and the Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: 柏書房 (Kashiwa Shobō), 2006.

  104. 104.

    南京事件調査研究会 (Association of Investigation Research on the Nanjing Incident), 南京大虐殺否定論13のウソ (“The 13 lies” by the Deniers of the Nanjing Massacre), Tokyo: 柏書房 (Kashiwa Shobō), 1999.

  105. 105.

    南京戦史編集委員会 (Nanjing Battle History Editing Committee), 南京戦史資料集 I, II (The Collection of Source Materials Concerning the Nanjing Battle History Vols. I & II), Tokyo: 偕行社 (Kaikosha), 1989 & 1993.

  106. 106.

    阿羅健一 (Kenichi Ara), 聞き書南京事件 (Listen to the Statements about the Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: 図書出版社 (Book Publishing House), 1987, and its 2001 version: 「南京事件」日本人48人の証言 (Testimonies by 48 Japanese about “the Nanjing Incident”), Tokyo: 小学館 (Shōgakukan), 2001.

  107. 107.

    Masaaki Tanaka, 南京事件の総括: 虐殺否定十五の論拠 (A Summary of the Nanjing Incident: Fifteen Rationales that Negate the Massacre), Tokyo: 謙光社 (Kenkōsha), 1987.

  108. 108.

    東中野修道 (Shudo Higashinakano), 「南京虐殺」の徹底検証 (A Thorough Examination of “the Nanjing Massacre”), Tokyo: 展転社 (Tendensha), 1998.

  109. 109.

    Shudo Higashinakano, 1937南京攻略戦の真実 (The Truth of the 1937 Nanjing Offensive Campaign), Tokyo: 小学館 (Shōgakukan), 2003.

  110. 110.

    Shudo Higashinakano, 南京事件: 国民党極秘文書から読み解く (The Nanjing Incident: Deciphering top secret documents of the Nationalist Party), Tokyo: 草思社 (Sōshisha), 2006.

  111. 111.

    Shudo Higashinakano, 再現南京戦 (The Nanking Campaign Represented), Tokyo: 草思社 (Sōshisha), 2007.

  112. 112.

    Shudo Higashinakano, (南京「百人斬り競争」の真実 (The Truth of Nanjing “100-Man Killing Contest”), Tokyo: ワック (Wakku Kabushiki Kaisha), 2007.

  113. 113.

    南京学会 (Nanjing Association), 南京「虐殺」研究の最前線 (The Forefront Researches on the Nanjing “Massacre”), ed, by 東中野修道 (Shudo Higashinakano), Tokyo: 展転社 (Tendensha), 2002-.

  114. 114.

    藤岡信勝 (Nobukatsu Fujioka), 東中野修道 (Shudo Higashinakano), 「ザ∙レイプ∙オブ∙南京」の研究 (A Study of “The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II”), Tokyo: 祥伝社 (Shōdensha), 1999.

  115. 115.

    田辺敏雄 (Toshio Tanabe), 東中野修道 (Shudo Higashinakano), 阿羅健一 (Kenichi Ara), 新井佐和子 (Sawako Arai), 「反日」史観の虚構 (The Fabrication of the “Anti-Japanese” Historical View), Tokyo: 日本政策研究センター (Japan Policy Research Center), 1998.

  116. 116.

    Shudo Higashinakano, 小林進 (Susumu Kobayashi), 福永慎次郎 (Shinjirō Fukunaga), 南京事件“証拠写真”を検証する (Analyzing “the photographic evidence” of Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: 草思社 (Sōshisha), 2005.

  117. 117.

    松村俊夫 (Toshio Matsumura), 南京虐殺への大疑問 (Big Questions about the Nanjing Massacre), Tokyo: 展転社 (Tendensha), 1998.

  118. 118.

    前田雄二 (Yuji Maeda), 南京大虐殺はなかった (There was no Nanjing Massacre), Tokyo: 善本社 (Zenponsha), 1999.

  119. 119.

    北村稔 (Minoru Kitamura), 南京事件の探求 (An Exploration of the Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: 文藝春秋 (Bungei Shunjū), 2001.

  120. 120.

    冨澤繁信 (Shigenobu Miyasawa), 南京事件の核心 (The Core Issues of the Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: 展転社 (Tendensha), 2003.

  121. 121.

    Shigenobu Miyasawa, 「南京事件」発展史 (The Historical Development of the “Nanjing Incident),” Tokyo: 展転社 (Tendensha), 2007.

  122. 122.

    秦郁彦 (Ikuhiko Hata), 南京事件: 虐殺構造 (The Nanjing Incident: The Constitution of Massacre), Tokyo: 中央公論社 (Chūō Kōronsha), 1986.

  123. 123.

    Ikuhiko Hata, 昭和史の謎を追う (Tracking the Mystery of Showa History), Tokyo: 文藝春秋 (Bungei Shunjū), 1993.

  124. 124.

    Ikuhiko Hata, 現代史の争点 (The Issues at Debate in the Modern History), Tokyo: 文藝春秋 (Bungei Shunjū), 1998.

  125. 125.

    Ikuhiko Hata, 現代史の光と影: 南京事件から嫌煙権論争まで (The Lights and Shadows of the Modern History: The Controversies over the Nanjing Incident), Tokyo: グラフ社 (Gurafusha), 1999.

  126. 126.

    畝本正己 (Masaki Unemoto), 史実の歪曲: 東京裁判に見る南京虐殺事件 (The Distortion of Historical Facts: The Nanjing Massacre Incident Vieved by the Tokyo Trial), 埼玉県浦和市 (Saitama-ken Urawa-shi): 閣文社 (Kakubunsha), 1992.

  127. 127.

    Masaki Unemoto, 真相・南京事件ラーベの日記を検証して (The Truth: An Examination of John Rabe’s Nanjing Incident Diary), Tokyo: 文京出版, 建帛社 (Bunkyō Shuppan and Hatsubai Kenpakusha), 1998.

  128. 128.

    板倉由明 (Yoshiaki Itakura), 本当はこうだった南京事件 (Is the Nanjing Incident Truly Like This), Tokyo: 日本図書刊行会, 近代文芸社 (Nihon Tosho Kankōkai and Kindai Bungeisha), 1999.

  129. 129.

    Yoshiaki Itakura, “東中野論文「ラーベ日記の徹底検証」を批判する (A criticism of Higashinakano’s article ‘A thorough examination of Rabe’s diary’),” 正論 (Seiron), June 1998, and東中野修道 (Shudo Higashinakano), “やはり「ラーベ日記」は三等資料板倉由明氏の批判に答える (A reply to Mr. Yoshiaki Itakura’s criticism of ‘Rabe’s diary’),” 正論 (Seiron), July 1998.

  130. 130.

    東京裁判資料刊行會 (The Society for Publishing Tokyo Trial Source Materials), The Defense Side’s Source Materials Which Were not Presented at the Tokyo Trial (東京裁判却下未提出辯護側資料), Tokyo: 国書刊行会 (Kokusho Kankōkai), 1995.

  131. 131.

    中村粲 (Akira Nakamura), Dissentient Judgment of Justice Pal: International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Tokyo: 国書刊行会 (Kokusho-Kankokai), 1999.

  132. 132.

    藤岡信勝 (Nobukatsu Fujioka), “中村粲氏の「南京事件一万人説」を批判する (A criticism of Akira Nakamura’s ‘estimate of ten thousand victims in the Nanjing Incident’),” 正論 (Seiron), March 1999 and 中村粲 (Akira Nakamura), “「南京事件」の論議は常識に還れ-藤岡信勝氏の批判に答える (The common sense in discussing ‘the Nanjing Massacre’: A reply to Nobukatsu Fujioka’s criticism),” 正論 (Seiron), May 1999.

  133. 133.

    “谷壽夫 判處死刑 (Hisao Tani Sentenced to Death),” Central Daily, March 11, 1947, p. 3.

  134. 134.

    “谷寿夫战犯判决书附件关于集体屠杀部分统计节录 (An except of the appendix to war criminal Hisao Tani’s verdict concerning the statistics of the mass killings),” ADN, pp. 163–167.

  135. 135.

    According to Appendix 1 to the Hisao Tani trial verdict, the date listed is December 18, 1937, which is November 16, 1937, in the Lunar Calendar which was more popular in use by folks back then. See ADN, p. 165.

  136. 136.

    孙宅巍 (Sun Zhaiwei), “30万南京同胞被屠杀史实岂容否定 (How can the historical fact that three hundred thousand fellow countrymen were slaughtered be allowed to deny)?” 抗日战争研究 (Research on the War of Resisting Japan), No. 2, 1991, pp. 107–111.

  137. 137.

    Sun Zhaiwei, “关于南京大屠杀尸体处理的研究 (A Research on the disposing of the Nanjing Massacre Corpses),” 南京社会科学 (Nanjing Social Science), No. 4, 1991, pp. 72–74.

  138. 138.

    Sun Zhaiwei, “南京大屠杀与南京人口 (The Nanjing Massacre and the Nanjing Population),” 南京社会科学 (Nanjing Social Science), No. 3, 1990, pp. 75–77.

  139. 139.

    All the three population charts are cited from Sun’s 1990 Nanjing Social Science article, ibid., pp. 76–77

  140. 140.

    张宪文 (Zhang Xianwen), 南京大屠杀全史 (The Nanjing Massacre: A Complete History), Nanjing: 南京大学出版社 (Nanjing University Press), 2012, p. 200.

  141. 141.

    Sun Zhaiwei, 南京大屠杀 ( The Nanjing Massacre), Beijing: 北京出版社 (Beijing Publishing House), 1997, p. 129.

  142. 142.

    Zhang Xianwen, The Nanjing Massacre: A Complete History, p. 219.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA

    Suping Lu

Authors
  1. Suping Lu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Lu, S. (2019). Controversies over the Nanjing Massacre. In: The 1937 – 1938 Nanjing Atrocities. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9656-4_13

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9656-4_13

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-13-9655-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-13-9656-4

  • eBook Packages: HistoryHistory (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation