Jewish Refugees Arriving in China (1933–1941): Route, Time, Number and Resettlement

Abstract

Different views have been published on Chinese and international journals and other publications about the flight of Jewish Refugees to China, including their routes, time of arrival, their number and resettlement in Shanghai. Based on our research over the past years, this chapter will examine these issues by five periods.

Appendices

Annex: The Number of Jewish Refugees in Shanghai

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The year 2015 marked the 70th anniversary of the victory of the World Anti-Fascist War and the Chinese People’s War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression. Seventy years ago, Chinese people won the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression at a high price, and also made significant contributions to the full victory of the World Anti-Fascist War. Among its contributions, China saved about 30,000 European Jews from the Holocaust.

At that time, Chinese people showed great sympathy to the Jews in Europe, although they suffered from the Japanese aggression and had to struggle for survival just like the Jewish refugees. In 1933, Madam Song Qingling, together with a delegation of the China League for the Protection of Civil Rights, wrote a letter of protest to the German Consulate General in Shanghai, condemning Hitler’s anti-Semitic violence. In February 1939, Sun Ke, Madam Song’s step son and legislative head of the Republic of China, proposed establishing a Jewish settlement in Yunnan for Jewish refugees entering China. From 1933 to 1941, Shanghai received a high number of Jewish refugees. According to the Simon Wiesenthal Center, which specializes in Holocaust studies, Shanghai had taken in more Jewish refugees than Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and India put together.

However, the number of Jewish refugees arriving in Shanghai has divided the international academia and the community of former Jewish refugees. Some have even accused the Chinese media of exaggerating the number. This paper looks specially into this issue, based on articles and reports of Israel’s Messenger, the mainstream newspaper published by Jews in China at that time concerning the number of Jewish refugees in Shanghai.

1.1 Early Jewish Refugees in Shanghai

The first Jewish refugee came to Shanghai in 1933, but the number was small even though Hitler had launched the anti-Semitic movement in Germany. It was partly because the German Jews didn’t clearly recognize the threat and also because the neighboring European countries were the major destinations for Jewish refugees. Of those who came to Shanghai, most had a connection here, such as having relatives or having once lived in Shanghai, or having worked for German employers with business ties in Shanghai. In 1933, the first batch of German Jews arrived in Shanghai on a Lloyd Triestino liner to Wayside Wharf. They were 12 families with over one hundred members in total. Until the summer of 1938, the number of German Jews fleeing to Shanghai had remained small at around 1000, some of whom went on to other Chinese cities or other countries.

Some scholars argue that, strictly speaking, the Jews arriving in Shanghai from 1933 to 1938 were not refugees; they were merely immigrants or expatriates. On the other hand, some other scholars claim that these Jews should be counted as refugees, since they had come to Shanghai to escape Hitler’s anti-Semitic persecution that started in early 1933. German Jews arriving in Shanghai during this period were mostly intellectuals. A lot of them were doctors, lawyers, teachers and entrepreneurs, and had brought some wealth with them to Shanghai. Therefore, it is relatively easy for them to find jobs or start their own business in Shanghai. They enjoyed medium living standards among the Jews in Shanghai and resided in foreign concessions.

On October 1, 1933, Israel’s Messenger reported that 10 best German Jewish doctors were heading to Shanghai, according to the information the newspaper had received. By the end of 1933, about 30 German Jewish doctors had immigrated to Shanghai, most of whom had been distinguished back at home and opened their clinics in Shanghai afterwards. Among them, there was a neurologist of St. George Hospital and author of many medical books.

Another doctor, descendent of a Berlin-based publishing tycoon, enjoyed a very high reputation in Berlin in the circle of pediatrics and had worked as chief physician for a leading pediatric clinic which provided about 4000 outpatient services every month. Still another was a dentist and oral surgeon who had served the German army during World War I as head of a front-line medical station and was awarded the Iron Cross. After the War, he was engaged as director of the department of dentistry of a public hospital. Their arrival was good news to the Shanghai Jewish community.

N. E. B. Ezra, founder and chief editor of Israel’s Messenger, as well as founder and leader of the Shanghai Zionist Association, gave a family reception to welcome these newly-arrived German Jewish doctors at 6 Taiping Garden. When the first wave of German Jewish exodus swept the world, only a few Jews dared to travel to China. These “pioneers” were mainly professionals who had enjoyed a decent life in China and settled down mainly in Shanghai, Hankou, Beijing and Nanjing.

Since August 1938, as the Nazi persecution against Jews went crazy and spread to Austria, Czechoslovakia and other European countries annexed by Nazi Germany, a great number of Jews had fled Germany and Central European Countries to seek for havens. Here are some reports of Israel’s Messenger from August to October 1938.

“After the annexation of Austria, 15 Austrian Jews left for Shanghai on Conte Biancamano of Lloyd Triestino on August 15, 1938. They were the wealthy class in Vienna, but they were allowed to bring 20 RMs per person on board. They were greeted at the wharf in Shanghai by a relief organization. They looked sad and miserable. It is a pity that Jews have suffered from Nazi persecution and were forced to leave their homeland.”

“On August 28, another 10 Austrian Jewish refugees, including one women and two children, arrived in Shanghai from Italy onboard SS Conte Rosso of Lloyd Triestino. The refugees who arrived in Shanghai two weeks ago greeted them and took them to their shelters. These refugees experienced the same difficulties as the first batch of refugees, as they had only 20 RMs with them when they left Germany. They were penniless upon arrival in Shanghai and could not even afford the traffic expenses on their way to the shelters.”

“On September 11, six Jewish refugees, one German doctor and five Austrians, arrived in Shanghai onboard the Lloyd Triestino liner Victoria. Among them were three businessmen, one engineer and the wife of one of the three businessmen.”

“On October 18, 25 Jewish refugees from Germany and Austria took the Lloyd Triestino liner Conte Biancamano to Shanghai, including 19 men, 5 women and one child. A few of them could speak English but most of them had the financial problem.”

1.2 The Number of Shanghai Jewish Refugees Surging After the Kristallnacht

After the Kristallnacht in November 1938, German and Austrian Jews who found their dream shattered began to escape from the Nazis. But they were not as lucky as those who had gone before them, because the Nazis intensified their plunder of Jews’ wealth and only allowed them to keep a little money. Among the 187 Jewish refugees who arrived in Shanghai in December 1938, many had been millionaires before they fled, but they were only permitted to take what was enough for ship tickets and an additional 10 RMs. The Chinese and international newspapers in Shanghai at that time, especially the Israel’s Messenger, recorded the situation of the Jewish refugees landing at Wayside Wharf:

“180 German and Austrian Jews took the Italian ship the Ford and arrived in Shanghai on November 24. They looked very sad when they went through the customs. They took very little luggage with them because, for most refugees from Berlin, their belongings may have been confiscated at the German border as they had too much cash with them. When they arrived in Trieste after two days, they were told that the rest of their luggage was in another ship, so most refugees had nothing with them but handbags. One of these refugees had apparently been sent to concentration camps before. He still had a thick white bandage on his forehead and kept silent. A man next to him told North China Daily News that his head got hurt in Buchenwald and, by the way, most of the German Jews who arrived in Shanghai had spent some time there, from 10 weeks to 3 years. Most of the refugees came from Germany and only 30% were from Austria. There was an eye-catching red letter J on their passports. The luckiest one of these Jewish refugees had 3 RMs and the majority were penniless. It would be difficult for them to find jobs very soon, but they should not be considered as a burden on the Jewish community in Shanghai as they have brought spiritual wealth to the city. In fact, a lot of them were highly reputed doctors back home. The committee in charge of taking care of these refugees has rented the British Women’s Center at 708 Whashing Road (now Xuchang Road) in Hongkou, and turned it into a shelter which can house about 50 people.”

“524 German Jewish refugees arrived at Wayside Wharf on December 20 on Conte Biancamano. This is the largest wave of international refugees to Shanghai since the Russian immigration from 1918 to 1922. In fact, 526 refugees had been expected, but two had gone to Hong Kong and Manila halfway. The assistance organizations did a good job, arranging the refugees in several lines and sending them in groups to different refugee shelters. There were about 120 children. Many Jewish families who had already been crowded in small apartments offered to take care of one or two kids until their parents settled down. Most of these families are from Russia and they are not rich.”

“On December 31, 400 German Jews arrived in Shanghai onboard two Lloyd Triestino liners. The number of refugees surprised the Jewish assistance organizations, because they were expecting only 300. About 120 refugees got off the Potsdam instead of 70 and the number of passengers disembarking from the Rosso rose from 240 to 280. There were 28 kids. Most of these refugees were sent to the Embankment Building, but the children needed special care from the settled Jewish families, too. Many parents refused to separate from their young kids at first, but gradually, they found it reasonable to entrust their kids to the local Jewish families before they were able to provide warm and comfortable homes for them.”

“On January 14, 1939, about 50 European Jewish refugees arrived at Wayside Wharf. They travelled across Russia by the trans-Siberian rail and then took the Japanese liner Sansho from Dalian.”

“On January 15, around 250 German and Austrian Jewish refugees disembarked from the Victoria, in Shanghai. Jewish assistance organizations greeted them at Wayside Wharf where the majority landed and led them to refugee shelters in Hongkew or near the Wharf.”

“On January 29, the liner Ford arrived in Shanghai, bringing another group of 420 Jewish refugees to this city. They were temporarily accommodated in the Embankment Building and the Beth Aharon Synagogue where they could sleep on the floor. Some people could have only two meals a day. Up to now, Shanghai has received 2305 refugees, 400 of whom can support themselves. Jewish assistance organizations are under great pressure, as still 1905 people need help.”

“On February 10, at least 85 German Jewish refugees arrived in Shanghai onboard the French liner Athos II. It was reported that they had secretly crossed the German border and fled to Marseille, France, and then travelled to Shanghai by sea. They were temporarily accommodated in the Embankment Building. Meanwhile, it is predicted that 850 Jewish refugees will arrive in Shanghai on February 21 on board the Lloyd Triestino liner Conte Biancamano. By that time, the total number of refugees in Shanghai will reach 3155.”

“On February 24, again 85 German and Austrian Jewish refugees arrived at Wayside Wharf onboard a German liner Scharnhorst.”

“On March 5, 450 Jewish refugees arrived in Shanghai on board SS Conte Rosso. As usual, Jewish relief organizations met them at the Wharf and helped them through the customs while many trucks were waiting for them at the entrance. Some of these refugees were sent to the Embankment Building and some lone travelers were taken to the shelter on Ward Road which can accommodate 1200 people. Now, about 4500 German and Austrian Jews are living in Shanghai and refugees fleeing the Holocaust continue to flood into this city. There are 3945 Jewish refugees registered with CFA, but not all refugees have been put on record. Moreover, hundreds of Jewish refugees in Shanghai have not contacted CFA since they can take care of themselves with financial support from their friends in Shanghai or other countries. Apart from the first floor of the Embankment Building, CFA runs three refugee shelters, each accommodating about 1000 people.”

“Still 400 Jewish refugees arrived in Shanghai on April 3, the eve of Passover. Their promised land, however, is a temporary shelter in a school on Ward Road, rather than Palestine. Meanwhile, the head of that refugee camp was waiting at the Wharf for his wife and kids who were in the crowd. Victor Sassoon was filming people at the customs who were anxiously waiting for refugees.”

“But the real problem will come in the future. It is estimated that, on average, 3000 people are leaving their homes as refugees each month, but more than 3000 refugees will arrive in Shanghai this month. Three liners are bringing European refugees to Shanghai. Lloyd Triestino’s Giulio Cesare will carry 1600 Jews from Central Europe to Shanghai. Two German liners carrying about 1500 Jewish refugees will arrive in Shanghai via the Cape of Good Hope. The German ships have been rented by the German Gestapo to deport German Jews. Although every refugee has paid 2000 RMs, the liners had to go around the Cape of Good Hope, as they couldn’t afford the Suez Canal tolls.”

“The final number of Jews taking refuge in Shanghai is estimated to reach 13,000. The way that Jewish refugees assistance organizations have provided food and accommodation for these refugees looks like a miracle. Assistance organizations has aided about 7000 Jewish refugees through leasing houses and raising donations. The arrival of three liners transporting Jewish refugees this month doesn’t mean the end of immigration. Still other Jewish refugees will arrive on board other ships. Lloyd Triestino liners will bring at least 300 to 500 Jews to Shanghai every two weeks. In order to help the German Jews stand on their own feet, CFA has also set up a special fund amounting to 170,000 USD, of which 150,000 USD came from Victor Sassoon. Up to now, 350 Jewish refugees have their own business and 690 immigrants have become financially independent (including dependent family members). Meanwhile, 392 other immigrants have got self-reliant by finding employment or benefitting from private funding in Shanghai. While 6000 refugees still depend on the aid of assistance organizations, financially independent refugees have reached 20% of the total. But this ratio would have been much lower without the special fund.”

“On April 25, 220 Jewish refugees arrived at Wayside Wharf on board the Japanese liner Hakusaku Maru and the German liner Gneisenau. At the same time, 850 people came to Shanghai on board Conte Biancamano. The total number of Jewish refugees in Shanghai has gone up to 8400.”

“On May 8, 440 Jews, including 50 children, arrived at Wayside Wharf on board Conte Rosso from Germany. Most of the refugees from Berlin, Vienna and Hamburg are men who were released from concentration camps and forced to leave Germany. Their families were already in Shanghai, with just a few exceptions. At first, the Nazis allowed Jews to carry their clothes and other belongings when they were expelled from Germany, but new refugees could only take a handbag with them.”

“On May 14, 738 German Jews arrived at Wayside Wharf on board Giulio Cesare. The refugees looked relaxed when they disembarked and went through the customs. They said the ship had not stopped at Singapore or Hong Kong, but had gone directly from Colombo to Shanghai. They said the journey was still pleasant, as Giulio Cesare was one of the best equipped liners of Lloyd Triestino available for rental. It had two outdoor swimming pools. As the tickets for German liners and Lloyd Triestino had been sold out before October, they rented Giulio Cesare.”

“As one of the refugees said, it had been difficult to get a ticket even for Giulio Cesare. At that time, they had to pay up to double the regular fare to get a ticket, although they had all necessary documents and official approvals. The arrival of new refugees drives up the number of refugees in Shanghai to 9578. Many of them came to be reunited with their families who had arrived in Shanghai earlier. Among these new refugees, 100 stayed in the shelter on Wayside Road (now Huoshan Road), 100 in the shelter on Ward Road (now Changyang Road), 120 in the former HSBC building in Hongkew, 260 in the shelter on Chaofoong Road (now Gaoyang Road), and the rest in the Embankment Building. Meanwhile, to address the shortage of accommodation space, CFA is planning to build larger refugee shelters for 25,000 refugees expected to arrive later this year. The Refugee Registration Office is on the third floor of 190 Jiujiang Road. Every refugee must register their key personal information and provide a photo. They will carry one copy of the registration card while the Office keeps another. This is intended to help the Police better control the refugee population.”

“On May 19, the German liner SMS Scharnhorst arrived in Shanghai with 155 Jewish refugees, including 45 couples and 24 children. Their accommodation in Shanghai has been arranged. It is said that two other German liners, rented specially to transport refugees, will bring more via South Africa and Java to Shanghai. They have taken the longer route to save the Suez Canal tolls, for which only British pounds are accepted while the refugees had only RMs. The first liner is scheduled to arrive in Shanghai on June 24 with 461 refugees, and the second liner with 450 to 500 refugees is expected in mid-July. CFA has obtaineJed from Shanghai Municipal Council the use right for two schools which will accommodate up to 1400 refugees after refurbishment. As CFA estimated, about 3000 refugees will arrive in Shanghai each month from June to September, so more refugee shelters are needed. After these refugees arrive, the total of Jewish refugees in Shanghai will come to 21,000.”

“On May 22, 308 Jewish refugees arrived on board Victoria.”

“On June 4, 465 Jewish refugees arrived at Wayside Wharf on board Ford. Jewish assistance organizations sent them to shelters after they landed. Most people went to the shelter on Kinchow Road, while others were taken to shelters on Ward Road, Chaofoong Road, Wayside Road and the Embankment Building. It is estimated that the total number of Jewish refugees in Shanghai by now is 10,506.”

“On June 27, 862 Jewish refugees arrived at Wayside Wharf on board two liners, pushing the total number of European refugees in Shanghai beyond 12,000.

Among the new Jewish refugees, 827 came on board the Llyod Triestino liner Conte Biancamano, and 35 onboard a French Messageries Maritimes liner. Except for 100 of them who had found private residences, they were all accommodated in refugee shelters. On June 28, 459 refugees arrived on a rented German liner Usa Ramo, including 114 couples, 150 children, 142 single men and 33 single women.”

“On August 7, another batch of 265 Jews arrived on board HMS Victoria and were taken to refugee shelters near Wayside Road. The total number of European refugees in Shanghai has exceeded 16,000.”

In short, from August 1938 to early August 1939, 16,000 European Jews came to Shanghai as refugees. The Sephardi Jews and Russian Ashkenazi Jews who had already settled here were just about one-third of the Jewish refugee population.

1.3 Jewish Immigration After the Imposition of Restrictions in August 1939

The relatives of Jewish refugees in Shanghai had made every effort to help them, but the burden on relief organizations still got beyond their capacity as at least 12,000 more refugees were expected to arrive by the end of 1939. Problems had already emerged due to insufficient staffing and financial resources. In May 1939, scarlet fever broke out and soon ran rampant in Jewish refugee shelters, affecting over 200 people. More than 150 patients were sent to the emergency hospital on Chaofoong Road (now Gaoyang Road) and the others were housed in other hospitals in the concessions.

As Shanghai was unable to cope with the influx of refugees and consequential crisis, the Jewish community in Shanghai proposed restrictions on refugees entering the city. They had not expected the Holocaust. Meanwhile, they urged Jewish communities from other countries to provide more accommodation and economic aid to the Jewish refugees. Michel Speelman, general manager of the International Savings Society and also chairman of CFA, warned Shanghai Municipal Council and the Municipal Administrative Council of the Shanghai French Concession that the continuing influx of refugees would bring threats to Shanghai and that if the situation worsened, the Municipal Council would have to bear the responsibility to protect the Jewish population in the Shanghai International Settlement. So, the authorities should try to check the entry of refugees who had lost their savings or had no job prospects. He also urged the European consuls in Shanghai to inform shipping companies from their country of the proposed restrictions. Anxiety was also provoked among the Russian Jews who took unskilled jobs for low pay, because they feared new refugees would compete with them for jobs. In May 1939, Victor Sassoon told the Japanese authorities that a proper control over the influx of Jewish refugees was badly needed, or otherwise the Jewish community in Shanghai would feel threatened and become restless. Meanwhile, daily life in the concessions and public administration were disturbed as European refugees flooded into the city. Complaints rose among the concession residents and the authorities were worried. To make things worse, a rumor spread the China General Omnibus Company, a business of the Sassoon family, had planned to fire its Russian employees and hire Jews in their place, which spurred a panic and even anti-Semitism among the Russian immigrants. A pamphlet was published by an anti-Semitism organization under the title: A Warning for the Chinese, Japanese and Pagans: Refugees Are Invading Shanghai and its subtitle was Get Ready for Economic Invasion and the Era of Crime, Violence and Plot. It said, “Shanghai has suddenly become the paradise of the people who had attempted to cause destruction to Austria, Germany and Czechoslovakia while had exploited the workers there. They claim to be Hitler’s ‘victims’, but they are now flocking to Shanghai with their pockets full of cash. Who would really believe these Jews? Their propaganda says Hitler is trying to transport Jews out of Austria and Germany, but they are traveling in first or at least second-class cabins and rent expensive homes here and there. In the meantime, they’re urging the international community in Shanghai to give them foods and jobs. We’d have ignored their claim, but we find all at once that there are so many ‘refugees’ hanging on streets with cameras, frequently visiting banks, gobbling dessert in cafes, and eating in expensive restaurants. Just imagine how those dedicated to helping Chinese and Russian refugees will be surprised. Because the Jewish community just begged them to help the ‘poor refugees’ from Germany and Austria.”

Concerns among expatriates in Shanghai over job competition were clearly stated in an article Our Economy Is Under Threat of Jewish Refugees: European Exiles Are Becoming the Fourth Type of Foreigners in China published by Shanghai Evening Post and Mercury. The authorities of the International Settlement and foreign concessions also feared that the influx of Jewish refugees would create enormous financial and employment pressure and cause unrest. Some rich people from the West also feared that the Germany and Austrian Jews might damage the noble and dignified image of the white people, for the Jews would take manual jobs that had traditionally been done by the Chinese.

Meanwhile, as a large number of refugees entered Shanghai and the vast majority of them settled in Hongkou, a Japanese settlement, rental went up sharply and business competition intensified there. The Japanese residents urged the Japanese government to take counter actions. In an official document, therefore, the Japanese Foreign Ministry declared that Japanese nationals must be saved from the impact of Jewish immigrants. After 64 Jews came to Shanghai onboard of the NYK liner Suwa Maru and again settled in Hongkou on July 16, 1939, the Japanese authorities announced that no more Jewish refugees would be allowed to move into Hongkou. However, the Japanese authorities also feared that such a restriction might offend American and British Jews and affect the Fugu plan. The demand of the Jewish community in Shanghai to limit Jewish immigration was a great opportunity for the Japanese authorities to exert their restriction, and they had the excuse that it was a CFA decision.

On August 9, 1939, the Japanese authorities issued a policy paper to restrict the immigration of European Jews to Shanghai. Later, at a press conference, a reporter doubted whether Japan had any right to impose such a restriction in the areas north of the Suzhou River. The Japanese spokesman replied with arrogance: “The International Settlement is now largely under Japanese control, so we have the right to enact laws as necessary. Moreover, we have already informed the consulate general of Germany, Italy and many other countries in Shanghai.” He then added that the influx of Jewish refugees would threaten the life of residents north of the Suzhou River and that the restriction reflected the opinions of the Jewish organizations in Shanghai. Not including the refugees in temporary shelters, the Jewish population in that area was one tenth of the local Japanese population, so the Japanese authorities feared that frictions would arise between the two expatriate communities.

The Japanese Navy headquarters also stated explicitly in a memorandum to the Jewish assistance organizations in Shanghai that Jewish refugees who arrived after August 21 must not be settled in Hongkou. For humanitarian considerations, the Japanese authorities did not impose any restrictions immediately on Jewish refugees in the area under their control, but they decided to check new immigration, as the Battle of 1937 had damaged a lot of housing facilities in that area. New Jewish immigration would be suspended until new solutions were available to accommodate new refugees. The memorandum demanded a directory of Jewish refugees in Shanghai, by which the Japanese authorities would issue an identification card to each approved registrant and only refugees with this identification card were allowed to run a business on the north of the Suzhou River. Jewish refugees who had already settled in Hongkou must register with the Japanese authorities before August 22, or they would be considered as illegal immigrants and forced out of the area.

On August 14, Shanghai Municipal Council also informed all foreign consulates and international shipping companies that European refugees were no more allowed to enter the International Settlement of Shanghai and took strict measures to prevent refugees from landing. An official of the Council said that the number of Jewish refugees who had come to Shanghai had reached 16,000 and by the end of that year 5000 more might arrive. As the Jewish refugees had been banned from settling in the area north of the Suzhou River, the newly-arrived refugees had to live in the southern area which was even worse hit by the Battle of 1937 and more crowded than the northern area. In fact, Shanghai could not accept more refugees due to the extreme shortage of housing and medical facilities. Any epidemic outbreak would be disastrous. When scarlet fever hit the northern area a couple of months ago, the disease was brought under control just because there were enough hospitals and refugees were able to nurse their sick compatriots. If a similar disease affected the refugees in the southern area, the result would be completely different since all the existing hospitals were already overcrowded and no building was available to be used as a hospital. The official also pointed out that this ban did not apply to the European Jews who were already on board or otherwise on their way to Shanghai. The number of refugees on their way to Shanghai was not exactly predictable until the liners arrived in Hong Kong.

After Shanghai Municipal Council made the decision to limit Jewish immigration to Shanghai, the French Consulate General also issued a ban on new Jewish settlement in the French Concession. All international shipping companies that ran liners to Shanghai were informed of the new restrictions.

The Jewish organizations in Shanghai transmitted the restrictions issued by the Japanese authorities on August 9 and Shanghai Municipal Council on August 14 to the German Jews Leaders in London which forwarded the message to JDC, asking to stop Jewish immigration from Europe to Shanghai. In Germany and Italy, shipping companies posted notices in an attempt to discourage Jews from travelling to Shanghai, warning them of China’s bleak economic prospect. The bans were published by the local newspapers on August 16, and it is not difficult to imagine how worried the Jewish refugees in Shanghai were, especially those who had relatives that were about to embark on a journey or already on their way to Shanghai. Those who had booked tickets after August 14 had to ask the shipping companies for refund. However, the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS) was told later that four liners carrying 631 passengers scheduled to depart from August 14 to 21 were allowed to dock in Shanghai. Even so, the Jewish refugees in Shanghai were still laden with worry. They tried to negotiate secretly with every administrative authority in Shanghai, attempt to change the regulations. Finally, an agreement was reached with Shanghai Municipal Council and published on October 22.

Under the agreement, the ban issued by Shanghai Municipal Council in August was not applicable to Jews: 1. possessing available for use in Shanghai, not less than 400 USD in the case of an adult, or not less than 100 USD in the case of a child of less than 13 years of age; 2. having immediate family relations residing in Shanghai; or 3. having a contract of employment with a resident in Shanghai or intending to contract marriage with a resident of Shanghai. Shipping companies, including railway companies, were responsible to check the availability of fund according to certificates issued by CFA, and all eligible Jews must apply to Shanghai Municipal Council via CFA. It was a new hope of fleeing to Shanghai. However, this policy was only applicable in the International Settlement under Shanghai Municipal Council, but not valid in Hongkou which was controlled by the Japanese or the French Concession. The Japanese authorities left out the provision about cash availability, and declared they would scrutinize every item in every refugee’s application for entry permit. According to the CFA, only a couple of refugees were allowed to enter Hongkou or the French Concession. A letter from a Japanese diplomat in China in January 1940 shows that the Japanese authorities were unhappy with Shanghai Municipal Council for easing the ban on refugees and issuing so many entry permits to Jews from Europe. After all, the Japanese authorities had just issued 25 permits.

Nevertheless, the number of Jewish refugees arriving in Shanghai during this period dropped dramatically, even those many still managed to enter Shanghai against the restrictions. Only 2000 had landed in Shanghai from August 1939 to June 1940 before Italy declared war on France and the UK. On August 28, 1939, about 619 refugees arrived in Shanghai onboard Giulio Cesare. They were the last batch of Jewish refugees who departed from Italy before the ban took effect on August 14. After the outbreak of World War II on September 1, the Jewish refugees still on the sea were embarrassed. It was reported that these German Jews would land in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), but it was unknown whether they would stay in Dutch East Indies or travel to Shanghai onboard ships belonging to neutral countries. Meanwhile, hundreds of German Jews were deported from Hong Kong and Singapore since the UK declared war on Germany. But ironically, these Jews had already been deprived of their German citizenship by Hitler’s decree.

Since then, only a couple of ships carried Jewish refugees to Shanghai from now and then. On January 22, 1940, 70 refugees arrived in Shanghai onboard Conte Biancamano of Lloyd Triestino. Unlike those who had arrived before them and already settled in Shanghai, these new refugees were rich, since they had met Shanghai Municipal Council’s recent requirements. Most of them resided in the International Settlement, while some others settled in Hongkou with a special permit from the Japanese authorities. Most of them had stayed in Italy for some time after leaving Germany and had received overseas funds to cover travel expenses and meet the cash requirement. On February 9, 162 Jewish refugees arrived in Shanghai onboard SS Conte Rosso of Lloyd Triestino. On March 5, some German Jews who had been allowed by the Nazi government to go to the Far East across Siberia arrived in Shanghai onboard the Japanese liner Hakusaku Maru from Dalian. On April 4, about 100 Jewish refugees, mainly from Germany, Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Poland, arrived in Shanghai onboard the Lloyd Triestino liner Ford, and were settled in Shanghai with proof of monetary possession. On May 9, 211 Jewish refugees arrived in Shanghai onboard SS Conte Rosso of Lloyd Triestino, mainly from Berlin, Breslau (ceded to Poland after WWII and renamed Wroclaw), Danzig and Czechoslovakia, and most of them had come to reunite with their families.

On June 6, 263 Jewish refugees arrived in Shanghai onboard the liner Ford, of whom most were from Germany, a few were from Austria, and about 50 were from Czechoslovakia. It’s believed that they might be the last batch of Jewish refugees who had come to Shanghai by sea. Some Jews who had scheduled to board the liner Ford to depart on May 6 had been sent back to Munich from the German-Italian border because the Italian government was afraid that the upcoming war between Italy and Britain would threaten the liner’s safety. On June 10, Italy declared war on the UK and France, and soon France surrendered. Later, the UK fought with Germany and Italy over the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean, and the fire spread to the Balkans, North Africa and West Asia. Therefore, the traditional sea routes to Shanghai were all cut off. Meanwhile, West European countries including France, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg and the Balkans including Yugoslavia and Greece were taken by the Nazis one after another. The Baltic States, threatened by the Nazis, were later incorporated into the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the Nazis extended their anti-Semitic program to Poland and other Eastern European countries. European Jews were driven to despair. They tried to flee, but fewer were able to get away. During this period, many Jews still picked Shanghai as their destination, but they had to travel by land across Siberia and then northeastern China, Korea or Japan. Since June 1940, about 2000 refugees arrived in Shanghai by land.

After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the land routes to Shanghai were also cut off, so no more Jewish refugees were able to get away from Europe. At that time, about 2000 Jewish refugees, mostly from Poland and Lithuania, had already reached the Russian Far East, northeastern China, and Japan, but could not go anywhere due to the intensified war and restrictions on immigration. They finally managed to come to Shanghai.

The experience of more than 1100 Polish Jews on their way to Shanghai is especially noteworthy, including 400 teachers and students of the Mir Yeshiva and the Chachmei Lublin Yeshiva. In 1939 when Germany invaded Poland, they fled to Lithuania, and then thought of obtaining transit visas for Japan with their bogus visas for the Dutch Curacao, and then obtaining in Japan visas for the USA. Thanks to the support of Sugihara Chiune, the Japanese Consul General in Lithuania, they finally got the transit visas. Later, they got exit permission from the Soviet Union government (Lithuania was part of the Soviet Union at that time), and took the train across Siberia to Vladivostok where they left for Kobe via a Soviet Union travel agency which charged 200 USD per person. After staying in Kobe for more than six months, they failed to obtain the visas for the USA, but got the permission to travel to Shanghai with the help of Zorach Warhaftig, representative of the Jewish Agency for Palestine.

According to a newspaper article, “On August 22, 1941, still 296 Jewish refugees arrived in Shanghai onboard a Japanese ship Asama Maru from Kobe and Yokohama, including 255 Polish and 16 Germans. They left the war-stricken Europe one year ago and had lived in Japan for 10 months although their Japanese visas were valid for only two weeks. The newcomers, most of whom were rabbis, were sent to the Beth Aharon Synagogue.” They are the last batch of Jewish refugees coming to Shanghai before Pearl Harbor attack on December 7. After the outbreak of the Pacific War on December 8, 1941, no more Jewish refugees had come to Shanghai because Shanghai’s connection with the outside world was totally cut off.

Conclusion

According to CFA’s 1940 annual report published on February 21, 1941, Shanghai was sheltering 23,310 Jewish refugees in 1940 who had been registered with CFA. Afterwards, some more Jewish refugees had come to Shanghai via Siberia, Korea and Japan, while some Jewish refugees traveled to other countries from Shanghai. For example, in 1940, 102 German Jews went to France via Saigon and joined the French Foreign Legion to combat the Nazis; in the second half year of 1941, 29 Polish Jews went to Palestine to join the Zionist movement.

To sum up, at least 25,000 Jewish refugees had lived in Shanghai during World War II, which matches with the data of the Simon Wiesenthal Center. Including the Jewish refugees who had gone on to other countries via Shanghai between 1933 and 1941, the total number would be somewhere around 30,000.

Therefore, it’s not at all exaggerating to assert that Shanghai had the largest number of Jewish refugees before and during the World War II among all international cities.