Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Learning in a Digital World pp 83–112Cite as

The Necessary Nine: Design Principles for Embodied VR and Active Stem Education

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Smart Computing and Intelligence ((SMCOMINT))

Abstract

This chapter explores the two profound affordances of VR for learning; namely (1) the sense of presence attendant with immersive VR, and (2) the active learning associated with movement/gestures in a three-dimensional virtual world. The chapter highlights several theories supporting embodied education and two examples of mediated STEM lessons which have been designed to maximize active learning. The first example explores the journey of redesign when a 2D tablet game is transformed into a 3D immersive VR lesson. The second example optimizes the new generation of hand controllers in VR and uses constructivism as the primary design foundation. The chapter ends with a set of optimal design principles for immersive VR in STEM education. The most important are called the Necessary Nine.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    No space is devoted to CAVES in this chapter (environments with projected wall surfaces, or cubes, where reality is never present) because the cost of a CAVE is still prohibitive for most educational settings.

  2. 2.

    This is not to say the distinction between immersion and presence should never be used for MR and/or AR systems. Playing games on smartphones, which are bordered, small screen experiences (not 360) do seem to still induce hours of “presence” in many users.

  3. 3.

    Also www.embodied-gams.com – or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eap7vQbMbWQ.

  4. 4.

    The movie is called Amazon Adventure. The funding agency for the assessment tool was National Science Foundation, grant # 1423655. A WebGL version of the game can be played at www.embodied-games.com.

  5. 5.

    Late stage playtesting with colorblind males, revealed that red and green remained poor choices for feedback. Even though we knew this at the onset and tried to compensate with a second feedback signal of shape, i.e., two different icons: heart versus skull. The images were just too small to be easily distinguished, and this needs to be addressed in the next version.

  6. 6.

    In a small usability study, several players reported this model helped them to understand color perception. Whether the task inadvertently supports an incorrect model of “red waves moving through the air” could be explored with a larger and more formalized study. These sorts of issues are always a tension when visualizing abstract phenomena.

References

  • Abrahamson, D. (2009). Embodied design: Constructing means for constructing meaning. Educational Studies of Mathematics, 70, 27–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-008-9137-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abrahamson, D., & Trninic, D. (2015). Bringing forth mathematical concepts: signifying sensorimotor enactment in fields of promoted action. ZDM Mathematics Education, 47(295). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-014-0620-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alaraj, A., Lemole, M. G., Finkle, J. H., Yudkowsky, R., Wallace, A., Luciano, C., et al. (2011). Virtual reality training in neurosurgery: Review of current status and future applications. Surgical Neurology International, 2, 52. https://doi.org/10.4103/2152-7806.80117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alibali, M. W., & Nathan, M. J. (2012). Embodiment in mathematics teaching and learning: Evidence from learners’ and teachers’ gestures. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 21(2), 247–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aukstakalnis, S. (2017). Practical Augmented Reality: A guide to the Technologies, Applications, and Human Factors for AR and VR. Boston: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailenson, J. N. (Producer). (2016, January 20, 2018). The Trials and Tribulations of Narrative in VR. MediaX. Retrieved from https://vhil.stanford.edu/news/2016/the-trials-and-tribulations-of-narrative-in-vr-mediax/.

  • Bailenson, J. N. (2017). Experience on Demand: What Virtual Reality Is, How It Works, and What It Can Do. New York, New York: W.W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailenson, J. N., Patel, K., Nielsen, A., Bajscy, R., Jung, S., & Kurillo, G. (2008). The effect of interactivity on learning physical actions in virtual reality. Media Psychology, 11(3), 354–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banakou, D., Hanumanthu, P. D., & Slater, M. (2016). Virtual embodiment of white people in a black virtual body leads to a sustained reduction in their implicit racial bias. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10(601). http://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00601.

  • Barsalou, L. W. (1999). Perceptual symbol systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 577–660.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounded Cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 617–645.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings Cambridge. MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjork, R. A., & Linn, M. C. (2006). The science of learning and the learning of science: Introducing desirable difficulties. Association of Psychological Science Observer, 19(29), 39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, J. B., Segal, A., Vitale, J., & Fadjo, C. L. (2012). Embodied cognition and enhancing learning and motivation. In D. Jonassen & S. Land (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of learning environments. NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broaders, S. C., Cook, S. W., Mitchell, Z., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2007). Making children gesture brings out implicit knowledge and leads to learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136(4), 539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cline, E. (2011). Ready Player One. New York, New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Congdon, E. L., Novack, M. A., Brooks, N., Hemani-Lopez, N., O’Keefe, L., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2017). Better together: Simultaneous presentation of speech and gesture in math instruction supports generalization and retention. Learning and instruction, 50, 65–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, S., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2006). The Role of Gesture in Learning: Do Children Use Their Hands to Change Their Minds. Journal of Cognition and Development, 7(2), 211–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craik, F., & Lockhart, R. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671–684.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dalgarno, B., & Lee, M. J. W. (2010). What are the learning affordances of 3-D virtual environments? British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(1), 10–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01038.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dede, C., & Richards, J. (2017). Glossary of realities’ terms. In D. Liu, C. Dede, & J. Richards (Eds.), Virtual, Augmented, and Mixed Realities in Education (pp. 5–11). Berlin: Springer Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunleavy, M. (2014). Design principles for augmented reality learning. TechTrends, 58(1), 28–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engelkamp, J., & Zimmer, H. D. (1994). Motor similarity in subject-perfromed tasks. Psychological Research-Psychologische Forschung, 57(1), 47–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freina, L., & Ott, M. (2015). A Literature Review on Immersive Virtual Reality in Education: State Of The Art and Perspectives.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, J. J. (1979). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glenberg, A. M. (2010). Embodiment as a unifying perspective for psychology. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 1(4), 586–596. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glenberg, A. M., Witt, J. K., & Metcalfe, J. (2013). From the revolution to embodiment: 25 years of cognitive psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(5), 573–585. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613498098.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldin-Meadow, S. (1997). When gestures and words speak differently. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6(5), 138–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772905.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldin-Meadow, S. (2011). Learning through gesture. WIREs. Cognitive Science, 2, 595–607. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldin-Meadow, S. (2014). Widening the lens: What the manual modality reveals about learning, language and cognition. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biological Sciences, 369(20130295). https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guiterrez, F., Pierce, J., Vergara, V., Coulter, R., Saland, L., Caudell, T. P., … Alverson, D. C. (2008). The effect of degree of immersion upon learning performance in virtual reality simulations for medical education. Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 15: In Vivo, in Vitro, in Silico: Designing the Next in Medicine., 15, 13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasler, B. S., Spanlang, B., & Slater, M. (2017). Virtual race transformation reverses racial in-group bias. PLoS ONE, 12(4), 4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hostetter, A. B., & Alibali, M. W. (2008). Visible embodiment: Gestures as simulated action. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 495–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jang, S., Vitale, J., Jyung, R., & Black, J. (2016). Direct manipulation is better than passive viewing for learning anatomy in a three-dimensional virtual reality environment. Computers & Education, 106(March), 150–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.12.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C. (2017). Embodied education in mixed and mediated realities: Principles for content design. In D. Liu, C. Dede, & J. Richards (Eds.), Virtual, Augmented, and Mixed Realities in Education (pp. 193–218). Berlin: Springer Verlag.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C. (2018). Immersive VR and education: Embodied design principles that include gesture and hand controls. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 5(81). https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2018.00081.

  • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C., Birchfield, D., Koziupa, T., & Tolentino, L. (2014a). Collaborative embodied learning in mixed reality motion-capture environments: Two science studies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 86–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C., Birchfield, D., Megowan-Romanowicz, M. C., & Snow, E. L. (2015). If the gear fits, spin it! Embodied education and in-game assessments. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-based Simulations, 7(7), 40–65. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJGCMS.2015100103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C., & Megowan-Romanowicz, M. C. (2017). Embodied science and mixed reality: How gesture and motion capture affect physics education. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 2(24). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-017-0060-9.

  • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C., Megowan-Romanowicz, M. C., Birchfield, D., & Savio-Ramos, C. (2016). Effects of embodied learning and digital platform on the retention of physics content: Centripetal force. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1819. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01819.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C., Savio-Ramos, C., & Henry, H. (2014b). Alien Health: A nutrition instruction exergame using the Kinect sensor. Games for Health Journal: Research, Development, and Clinical Applications, 3(4), 241–251. https://doi.org/10.1089/g4h.2013.0094.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C., Savio-Ramos, C., Perkins, K. K., Moore, E. B., Lindgren, R., Clark, D., et al., Squire, K. (2014, June). Science Sims and Games: Best Design Practices and Fave Flops. Paper presented at the International Conference of the Learning Sciences (ICLS), Boulder, CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, H. (1991). Learning together and alone: cooperation, competition, and individualization. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalyuga, S. (2009). Managing cognitive load in adaptive ICT-based learning. Journal of Systemics Cybernetics and Informatics, 7, 16–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kapur, M. (2016). Examining productive failure, productive success, unproductive failure, and unproductive success in learning. Educational Psychologist, 51(2), 289–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2016.1155457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning. Science, 319(5865), 966–968. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1152408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kontra, C., Lyons, D., Fischer, S., & Beilock, S. L. (2015). Physical experience enhances science learning. Psychological Science, 26, 737–749. doi:10:1177: 0956797615569355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laviola, J. J., Kruijff, E., McMahan, R. P., Bowman, D. A., & Poupyrev, I. (2017). 3D User interfaces: Theory and Practice (2nd ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindgren, R., & Johnson-Glenberg, M. C. (2013). Emboldened by embodiment: Six precepts regarding the future of embodied learning and mixed reality technologies. Educational Researcher, 42(8), 445–452. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X13511661.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maister, L., Slater, M., Sanchez-Vives, M. V., & Tsakiris, M. (2015). Changing bodies changes minds: Owning another body affects social cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(1), 6–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2014.11.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Makransky, G., Lilleholt, L., & Aaby, A. (2017). Development and validation of the multimodal presence Scale for virtual reality environments: A confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory approach. Computers in Human Behavior, 72(C), 276–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.066.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia Learning (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Megowan, M. C. (2007). Framing Discourse for Optimal Learning in Science and Mathematics. (PhD), Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Metcalfe, J. (2017). Learning from errors. Annual Review of Psychology, 68(1), 465–489. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikropoulos, T. A., & Natsis, A. A. (2011). Educational virtual environments: A ten-year review of empirical research (1999–2009). Computers & Education, 56(3), 769–780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.10.020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minocha, S., Tudor, A., & Tilling, S. (2017). Affordances of mobile virtual reality and their role in learning and teaching. Proceedings of British HCI, Digital Make Believe, 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, N., Cutting, C., & Sifakis, E. (2015). GRIDiron: an interactive authoring and cognitive training foundation for reconstructive plastic surgery procedures. ACM Transactions on Graphics, 34(4), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1145/2766918.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nathan, M. J., Walkington, C., Boncoddo, R., Pier, E. L., Williams, C. C., & Alibali, M. W. (2014). Actions speak louder with words: The roles of action and pedagogical language for grounding mathematical reasoning. Learning and Instruction, 33, 182–193. 10.1016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oculus. (2018). Developers: Best Practices. Retrieved from https://developer.oculus.com/design/latest/concepts/book-bp/.

  • Palinscar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1(2), 117–175. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0102_1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pea, R. D. (2004). The social and technological dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning, education, and human activity. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(3), 423–451. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls1303_6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1997). The language and thought of the child (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Repetto, C., Pedroli, E., & Macedonia, M. (2017). Enrichment effects of gestures and pictures on abstract words in a second language. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(2136), 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rizzo, A., Difede, J., Rothbaum, B. O., Reger, G., Spitalnick, J., Cukor, J., & Mclay, R. (2010). Early evaluation of the Virtual Iraq/Afghanistan exposure therapy system for combat-related PTSD. ANNALS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 1208 (Psychiatric and Neurologic Aspects of War Development), 114–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenshine, B., & Meister, C. (1994). Reciprocal teaching: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 64(4), 479–530. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543064004479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaub, M., & Abadi, F. (2011). Integrated population models: A novel analysis framework for deeper insights into population dynamics. Journal of Ornithology, 152(1), 227–237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-010-0632-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schell, J. (2014). The Art of Game Design (2nd ed. Vol. New York): Taylor Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segal, A. (2011). Do Gestural Interfaces Promote Thinking? Embodied Interaction: Congruent Gestures and Direct Touch Promote Performance in Math. Dissertation, ERIC. ISBN: ISBN-978-1-1246-2610-9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segal, A., Black, J., & Tversky, B. (2010). Do Gestural Interfaces Promotoe Learning? Congruent Gestures Promote Performance in Math. Paper presented at the 51st Meeting of the Psychonomic Society Conference, St. Louis, Missouri.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shute, V. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153–189. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654307313795.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shute, V. (2011). Stealth assessment in computer-based games to support leanring. Computer Games and Instruction, 20, 503–523.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2018). Embodied learning: Introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration. Cognitive Research, 3(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-018-0092-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slater, M., & Sanchez-Vives, M. V. (2016). Enhancing our lives with Immersive virtual reality. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 3(74). https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2016.00074.

  • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6, 603–616.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, R. E., Corno, L., & Jackson, D. N. (Eds.). (1996). Individual differences in affective and conative functions. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Squire, K. D. (2008). Video games and education: designing learning systems for an interactive age. Educational Technology, 48(2), 17–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanney, K. M., & Hash, P. (1998). Locus of user-Initiated control in virtual environments: Influences on cybersickness. Presence: Teleoperators and virtual environments, 7(5), 447–459. https://doi.org/10.1162/105474698565848.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Varela, F., Thompson, E., & Rosch, E. (1991). The embodied mind: Cognitive science and human experience. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: The Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldrop, M. M. (2015). Why we are teaching science wrong, and how to make it right. Nature News, 523(7560), 272–275. https://doi.org/10.1038/523272a.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 625–636.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Witmer, B. G., & Singer, M. J. (1998). Measuring presence in virtual environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 7(3), 225–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolfolk, A. (2007). Educational psychology (10th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to James Comstock, Tyler Agte, Dennis Bonilla, the crew at TIMEFIREVR, and Diane Carlson. The 2D version of Natural Selection “Catch a Mimic Game” was funded by NSF grant number 1423655. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Embodied Games, LLC, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA

    Mina C. Johnson-Glenberg

Authors
  1. Mina C. Johnson-Glenberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mina C. Johnson-Glenberg .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Carlos III University of Madrid , Leganés, Spain

    Paloma Díaz

  2. Cyprus University of Technology , Lemesos, Cyprus

    Andri Ioannou

  3. Centre for Educational Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India

    Kaushal Kumar Bhagat

  4. University of North Texas , Denton, TX, USA

    J. Michael Spector

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Johnson-Glenberg, M.C. (2019). The Necessary Nine: Design Principles for Embodied VR and Active Stem Education. In: Díaz, P., Ioannou, A., Bhagat, K., Spector, J. (eds) Learning in a Digital World. Smart Computing and Intelligence. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8265-9_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8265-9_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-13-8264-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-13-8265-9

  • eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation