Keywords

1 Introduction

With objectives to cater high quality lifestyle and excellent environment to citizens globally, smart cities have been developed in different countries. Highly skilled and learned citizens living-working in such smart cities are expected to contribute immensely on account of their experience and domain expertise to the development of society and nation at large. As mentioned in [1], globally going on urbanization is estimated to urbanize 500 million people by 2030 resulting in approximately 60% of the world’s population living in cities. Urbanization is also contributing significantly to climate change as 20 largest cities consume 80% of the world’s energy and urban areas generate 80% of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. Climate change, energy scarcity, environmental pollution, etc. have been some of the major challenges of rapid urbanization that need to be resolved by efficient urban planning for effective and sustainable development without putting pressure on resources.

Smart environment resource management with low carbon electricity ecosystem should therefore necessarily be the essential segment of urban planning to avoid future sources of greenhouse emissions, while developing more livable and efficient urban spaces. It could also alleviate population pressure on natural habitats and biodiversity thus reducing the risks to natural disasters. Smart buildings with low carbon footprint powered by smart grid would help immensely to smart prosumers in smart environment resource management and much positive impact on overall optimized energy consumption.

A basic building block of such a smart city is a ‘Smart Building’ which contributes at the core to realize the transformation of the smart city. As the smart citizen of smart city shall live and work in smart building environment, it is the need of an hour to closely monitor various critical parameters associated.

Referring to our earlier contributions, in [2] detailed technical review of smart grid along with identification of critical applications and parameters, while in [3] e-governance of rooftop-based solar photo voltaic rooftop system has been covered with special focus Gandhinagar solar city project. Next in [4], smart grid pilots along with interesting applications have been discussed including various initiatives of UGVCL and GERMI. Last in [5], interesting details of smart metropolitan region development of Ahmedabad-Gandhinagar twin city metropolitan region with smart grid installation with Naroda area at the focus was presented.

In line with our above mentioned earlier contributions, this chapter begins with conceptual explanations of associated terminologies and later identifies key critical parameters for smart environment monitoring in smart building. Next, the chapter presents relevant technological approaches involved and put forth case study examples for the same purpose. This chapter indicates relevant issues and challenges and suggests necessary recommendations for citizens’ participation at the end.

2 Smart City Evolution: Smart Grid, Smart Building and Smart Environment

Transformation of legacy cities into smart cities necessitates subsequent transformation of conventional unidirectional non-smart electrical grids into bi-directional smart grids with plethora of e-applications for different domains.

Describing a smart city as a sustainable and efficient urban center that provides a high quality life to its inhabitants through optimal management of its resources with energy in particular, Calvillo et al. [6] identified energy management is one of the most demanding issues owing to the complexity of the energy grid systems and their vital role. To achieve resolution of such an issue, Khansari et al. [7] mentioned that in a smart city by having the right information at the right time, citizens, service providers and city government, etc. would be able to make better energy switching-scheduling-consumption related decisions to provide quality life to urban residents with overall sustainability of the city. Further zeroing in [8], seek to analyze recent shifts in goals concerning domestic energy uses by investigating various domestic practices such as lighting, heating and cooling spaces, cooking/eating and leisure activities, cleaning, etc. with relevant appliances as well as their timing relevant characteristics for flexible timing-of-use.

Moreno-Munoz et al. [9] outlined evolution of ‘Smart Energy Communities’ that would allow the active participation of the ‘prosumers’ in a genuinely open market. Outlining continuously rising energy demands from rapidly increasing IoTs in smart city applications, Ejaz et al. [10] presented unifying framework for energy efficient optimization and scheduling of IoT based smart cities along with an interesting case study of energy-efficient scheduling in smart homes in smart cities.

Homes and buildings are constituent and basic elements of any city, therefore, in such a situation of revamping, without converting homes and buildings into smart ones, the overall transformation of cities and citizens would remains incomplete. Therefore, to fulfil the overall objectives of ‘smart city’, both the citizen and the home or building in which the citizen enjoys his/her life and works are necessarily be ‘smart’. Original concept of ‘Smart Home’ has been further expanded into ‘Smart Building’ to make it applicable to large residential/commercial/institutional complexes such as apartments, societies, offices, hotels, hospitals, community centres, etc. Generally, buildings equipped with duly automated subsystems for routine operation, safety, security, communication, entertainment, etc. are known as ‘Smart Buildings’. Smartness is evolved by deployment of different sensors and actuators for such automation along with smart configuration of control systems.

Smart environment is the real world physical environment for living and/or working inside such smart buildings duly equipped with special sensors, displays, actuators and controlling devices for continuous monitoring and control. The environment resources include ambience, air quality, water quality, etc.

3 Critical Parameters for Smart Environment Monitoring [11,12,13,14]

In recent years there has been an increase in public awareness about the effects of the indoor environment on people’s health, comfort and work efficiency. Indoor work environment has also been considered as a crucial factor in the context of productivity. Parameters such as ambient temperature and humidity, illumination, barometric pressure, vibration and acoustic noise, air quality, water quality, safety and security have been considered important critical parameters for smart environment and monitored closely.

3.1 Ambient Temperature and Humidity [11,12,13,14]

Room temperature is a key ambient parameter. Very high or very low values of temperature have direct impacts on work efficiency and expectancy of lifespan. Humidity affects digestion and temperament of a person. Especially, cities on sea shores and beaches, it becomes important. Humidity is also dependent upon rainfall and it has impacts upon mood swings as well as work efficiency. Environment with controlled ambient temperature and humidity can provide thermal comfort to the occupants.

The comfort level of a human being results into his/her health and work efficiencies. Ambient temperature and humidity are closely interrelated parameters that directly affect comfort and therefore, health, mood and temperament of persons staying in the building. Generally, it is recommended to maintain temperature within range of ~19.5–20.5 °C and humidity within range of ~25–80% RH.

Environments with very low temperature and very low relative humidity causes dry respiratory, while those with very high temperatures and very high relative humidity result into heat stroke. Similarly, environments with very high temperature with very low humidity causes dehydration, while those with very low temperature with very high humidity rheumatism.

3.2 Illumination

Natural illumination is preferred, however, in absence of natural illumination, artificial illumination is provided by lighting. Illumination has direct effects on fatigue and boredom and hence, on work efficiency. Environments with controlled illumination can provide visual comfort to the occupants.

As mentioned by Falchi et al. [15], excessive artificial lighting also results into environmental pollution, which is observed one of the most rapidly rising recently with its levels growing exponentially over the natural nocturnal lighting levels provided by starlight and moonlight.

3.3 Barometric Pressure

Barometric pressure affects blood pressure and health of the person. It becomes very important parameter to monitor for cities in hilly terrains in particular. Abrupt variations in barometric pressure cause uneasiness and discomfort to the citizens as it not only affects their digestion system, it also swings mood and temperament.

3.4 Vibration and Acoustic Noise

Vibration is very important parameter from safety point of view, especially for the cities established in seismic zones and/or in hilly areas such as Himalayan terrains including Haridwar, Nainital, etc. in India. Larger amplitude earth vibration measurements could result into earthquakes and spread threat of life in citizens. Places with vibration and acoustic noise within limits can provide acoustic comfort to the occupants.

Huang et al. [16] mentioned that neutral sound pressure level for aural comfort in typical air-conditioned offices have been found in the range of 45–70 dB, with a mean of 57.5 dB. Undesirable sounds outside this range have been considered as Noise which could cause concentration failures, if the workspaces have poor acoustic isolation properties (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
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a Temperature sensor, b Humidity sensor [12] and c Vibration and acoustic noise sensor [13]

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3.5 Air Quality [11,12,13,14]

Clean air for breathing is fundamental necessity of everyone’s life. Without stringent monitoring of air quality, survival of citizens could be in danger. Breathing in poor quality air shall quickly affect health of citizens and the entire city can get into health hazards or serious diseases. Particulate Matters (PM), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) contents have monitored for determination of air quality. Stringent biological, chemical and physical monitoring is required for overall air quality maintenance. Natural and artificial both types of ventilation should be employed for consistently maintaining air quality.

3.5.1 Particulate Matters (PM)

Considered as most hazardous air pollutants, particulate matters (PM 2.5 and 10) are two major air quality (purity) parameters which represent presence of particles with diameters 2.5 and 10 μm. Such particles can cause serious problems of respiratory and breathing such as cardiovascular problems, asthma attacks, etc.

3.5.2 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

These are indoor pollutants due to increased usage of certain products and building materials in construction. Such pollutant materials severely affect health and productivity, causing problems like headaches, dizziness, eye irritation, etc.

3.5.3 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Being an important indicator of indoor air quality, CO2 content is keenly monitored as it directly affects the productivity and well-being of the building residents. To maintain CO2 under specific limits, active ventilation is required (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
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a Particulate matters sensor, b CO2 sensor and c Gas sensor [12]

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3.6 Water Quality [17]

Clean and pure drinking water is basic need for everyone. Without close monitoring of water quality, survival of citizens could lead to danger. Consumption of contaminated water can make serious and adverse effects on citizens’ health and spread waterborne contagious diseases. Chemical parameters like pH, Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Physical parameters such as solid concentrations such as Totally Suspended Solids (TSS) and turbidity are mainly monitored for ensuring water quality (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
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Water quality sensor [17]

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3.7 Safety and Security

Safety and security against thefts, fire and gas leaks, unauthorised access to premises, etc. are necessary not only for young and physically fit citizens, but also for children, differently enabled persons, ladies and elderly citizens.

4 Technological Advancements: HAN-BAS, WSN and IoT

4.1 HAN-BAS

Home Area Network (HAN) is the network within the premises of a house or building, enabling devices, and electrical loads to communicate with each other and dynamically respond to externally sent signals (i.e. price, capacity utilization, scheduling information, etc.). This type of network could be characterized by low data rate requirements and provides necessary communication infrastructure for the energy meter. As reported via Reuters at [18], from $5.77 billion in 2013, the global market of home automation and security control is likely to reach $12.81 billion by 2020 with projected CAGR of 11.36% between 2014 and 2020. This clearly exhibits the potential and demand at international levels.

Building Automation System (BAS) is a data acquisition and control system that incorporates various functionalities provided by central control system of a building. Modern BAS is a computerized, intelligent network of electronic devices, designed to monitor and control the lighting, internal climate, and other systems in a building for creating optimized energy usage, safety and security, information and communication, and entertainment facilities. BAS reduces building energy consumption and, thereby, reduces operational and maintenance costs as compared to an uncontrolled building. BAS core functionality keeps building climate within a specified range, provides light to rooms based on an occupancy schedule, monitors performance and device failures in all systems, and provides malfunction alarms to building maintenance staff. A building equipped with BAS is often referred to as a Smart Building or Intelligent Building.

4.2 WSN

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) refers to a group of spatially dispersed and dedicated sensors for monitoring and recording the physical conditions of the environment and organizing the collected data at a central location. WSNs measure environmental conditions like temperature, humidity, vibration, sound, pollution levels, wind, etc. (Fig 4).

Fig. 4
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a WSN mote, b WSN mote in enclosure [28], c Solar powered WSN mote [17] and d Wireless data aggregator unit

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4.3 IoT

Wikipedia defines Internet of Things (IoT) as the network of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other items with embedded electronics, software, sensors, actuators, and connectivity which enables these things to connect and exchange data, creating opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems, resulting in efficiency improvements, economic benefits and reduced human intervention. Referring to market researcher Gartner German news agency FAZ vide its website article at [19], last year 8.4 billion networked devices were in use, which were 31% higher in numbers than previous year; with an estimated quantity to reach 20.4 billion devices by 2020.

In [20], after providing vision and role of IoT in smart city applications, with smart home applications in particular, along with communication technology related details.

The main attractive feature of IoT devices is they are accessible-modifiable over internet and consume less power due to sleep-sniff abilities as well as their high security data communication with good latency performance.

5 Participation of Smart Citizens and Initiatives

Smart citizen living-working in smart building powered by smart grid of smart city, shall not merely remain a consumer like legacy citizen, but also be a producer of electricity. Thus, the smart citizen shall be a ‘Prosumer’ (Producer + Consumer) of electrical energy. Smart buildings shall be equipped with small size wind turbines and/or rooftop solar Photo Voltaic (PV) cells to produce electricity which shall be adjusted-credited against the consumption bills.

Smart citizen without compromising convenience, comfort or liking, shall configure/schedule various appliances to run at their best efficiency during off-peak hours to serve the need of service as well as to consume least. Smart citizen shall adapt schemes of dynamic pricing and participate actively in Demand Side Management (DSM) and Demand Response (DR) based on intelligent Load Forecasting (LF) suggestions sent from utility company. Novel concepts such as Real Time Pricing (RTP), Time of Use (ToU), and Critical Peak Pricing (CPP) shall serve as major guidelines for effective, efficient, and timely decision-making for optimized use of electricity.

Describing various Government of India initiatives on smart cities developments, Upadhyaya [21] suggested that the focus should be sustainable and inclusive development. The authors explained basic idea of smart cities with its components and applicability in Indian cities.

Presenting smart grid evolution as energy independence and environmentally sustainable economic growth, Vijayapriya and Kothari [22] presented basic components and model setup of smart grid network along with a model for smart home.

Focusing upon role of IoT in renewable resources integration to electric grid, [23] presented conceptual implementation of architecture in smart cities and proposed consumer communication area network framework.

6 Issues and Challenges

  1. (i)

    Smart energy systems could attain a sustainable future by tackling challenges and issues related to production, processing, and end use of energy.

  2. (ii)

    Electricity theft has been identified as one of the major challenge vide [24] along with communication availability and reliability as some of the major issues.

  3. (iii)

    Significant amount of novel approaches are required to fulfil the objectives such as decarbonisation as well as reduction in impacts of climate change.

  4. (iv)

    Mir and Ravindran [20] identified challenges for IoTs such as pending technological standardization, managing and fostering rapid innovation, privacy and security, absence of governance, vulnerability to internet attack, etc.

  5. (v)

    Return over investment, break-even period, capital and maintenance expenditures, requirements of highly skilled manpower, etc.

7 Case Study Examples

Focusing on urban IoTs, Zanella et al. [25] presented an interesting case of practical proof-of-concept implementation in the city of Padova, Italy, various services (smart city applications) have been characterized along with network types, traffic rates, tolerable delays, energy sources and feasibility.

Reviewing concepts, motivations and applications of smart cities, Arasteh et al. [26] described IoT technologies for smart cities including practical experiences of various installations across the world and challenges faced.

Design and implementation of working models of BAS based on wired technology has been presented in [27]. With necessary customization, these models could be suitably modified to serve need based application requirements. Using similar approach, existing buildings can also be converted into smart buildings with suitable modifications.

Standard modules packaged with various relevant sensors are available as shown in Fig. 5, which could be employed as per customized needs. Furthermore, a central monitoring system should be evolved as shown in Fig. 6 from where entire geographic spatial region should be continuously monitored, citizens could be alerted against abnormal possible occurrences and necessary records could be maintained for future use (Fig. 7).

Fig. 5
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a Wireless smart cities sensor, b Wireless smart environment sensor and c Wireless smart ambient control device [17]

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Fig. 6
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View of central monitoring system [27]

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Fig. 7
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Snapshot of remote access of GUI via internet [27]

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8 Guidelines and Recommendations

  1. (i)

    Each smart building in a smart city can differ in terms of requirements of applications and therefore that of communication. Therefore, there cannot be a single model which could be made universally applicable. However, with necessary customization, suitable model could be developed and implemented to serve need based requirements. New buildings should be constructed duly equipped with smart technologies to be smart buildings since inception, while existing buildings should be converted into smart buildings with suitable modifications.

  2. (ii)

    Usage of smart building technologies along with smart plugs, LEDs and climate sensors have been advised to utilize for reduction in energy consumption, CO2 reduction and spreading awareness.

  3. (iii)

    Designers, maintenance staff as well as citizens should be imparted necessary training and awareness for easy adaptability.

9 Summary and Conclusions

This chapter started with explanation of importance of smart home/smart building as core and mandatory element of smart grid serving as energy backbone of smart city. Next, critical parameters for smart environment monitoring and citizen participation have been discussed. Relevant technologies along with useful case study examples have been presented along with earlier contributions of authors. Finally after identifying applicable issues and challenges, the article ends with making useful guidelines and recommendations.