Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the Chinese education system in the late Qing and early Republican era and analyzes textbooks, primers, and readers published by both missionaries and Chinese educators, focusing on narrative stories that engage with the idea of play. The benefits of play outside of school hours is integrated into some of the lessons as a “sanctioned” activity because it was believed that playing could provide children with increased energy and reinvigorate them to study more effectively and diligently. However, unregulated or excessive play is undesirable. This chapter also focuses on the figure of the selfish child in stories depicting children’s negative emotions. I argue that these children are often characterized as “spoiled” or “selfish” because their love of play is unbridled and needs to be harnessed for the development of virtues that are considered more critical for children to acquire.
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Notes
- 1.
The textbook was edited by Du Yaquan (1873–1933) who was the editor of the periodical Eastern Miscellany (Dongfang zazhi) published by the Commercial Press from 1911 to 1920. He was a reformer and intellectual who “had translated several books on modern science and philosophy but who was unwilling to embrace total Westernization” (Lee 2001, 39). Du had previously owned Putongxue Shushi but it closed down, and he agreed to give Commercial Press the rights to publish his Wenxue chujie in six volumes (Kaske 2008, 295–96). He was also the founder of Yaquan Gazette (Yaquan zazhi, 1900–01), a popular science journal. Du Yaquan’s other works include Dictionary of Zoology, Dictionary of Botany, and the Elementary Student’s Dictionary of Natural History. Jones states that these books are “testaments to Du Yaquan’s taxonomic imagination” and his The Little Compendium of Natural Science is impressive because it marked a shift from “premodern pedagogical methods, which were based around character primers such as the Three-Character Classic” (Jones 2011, 74). Instead, Du’s books followed a “Linnaean system naturae” (74). See Chapter 2 in Jones (2011) for more discussion of Du’s works on science.
- 2.
Prior to the Ming dynasty, there was no requirement for children under the age of fifteen to attend school; during the Ming dynasty, however, public schools were established across China, allowing for more children to access education (Ban 2014, 22). Ming theorists advocated restricting children, teaching them the importance of self-cultivation, and constraining them by making them aware of which behaviors were prohibited. Children were inhibited by adults who wanted them to conform to traditional societal expectations (Ban, 24). For a comprehensive history of Chinese education, see Thomas H. C. Lee (2000).
- 3.
Zouding xuetang zhangcheng has been variously translated as “Regulations for Modern Schools,” “Memorials Determining School Regulations,” or “Imperial School Regulations.”
- 4.
- 5.
See Xia Xiaohong (2011) for a detailed analysis of Mengxue keben.
- 6.
A graduate of Hangchow Presbyterian Academy, Wang was a teacher and prolific author of thirty-seven textbooks over the course of fifteen years on topics such as astronomy, arithmetic, geography, history, physiology, and hygiene. He was employed by the Presbyterian Mission Press for thirteen years, working closely with Ernest Faber and Mrs. G. F. Fitch, before moving to the Commercial Press for another thirteen years to take up various roles ranging from sales manager, advertising manager, director, and auditor. See Bai (2017) for more information on Wang.
- 7.
Zarrow notes that there were 100,000 schools in 1909, but others estimate that it was lower (2015, 13).
- 8.
According to Du Yaquan’s Illustrated Elementary Chinese Literature, there were 750 million children in 1896, and 400 million of them were in school, which is a higher percentage compared to other statistics (vol. 6, 41).
- 9.
- 10.
Davin calculates the number as 5917 (1987, 46).
- 11.
Catholic missionaries first established schools in China in the eighteenth century. There were approximately 25,000 students enrolled in Catholic schools in 1890 (Bastid 1987, 9).
- 12.
See Xiong Yuezhi (2011, 366–81) for a discussion of some publications of the School and Textbook Series Committee.
- 13.
David Blair was one of the pseudonyms that British schoolteacher Richard Phillips (1767–1840) used in his publications. The Universal Preceptor: Being an Easy Grammar of Arts, Sciences, and General Knowledge was first published in London in 1811 and subsequently printed in the United States.
- 14.
By 1890, eighty-four books and forty maps had been produced and, according to Limin Bai, they had a great influence on the Chinese reformers before the 1898 Hundred Days Reform (2005b, 200).
- 15.
According to Elman, dizhi referred to “earth’s topography,” dili zhixue was “physical geography,” and dixue meant “geology” (2006, 326).
- 16.
Some of the illustrations in New Self-Cultivation Textbook (1906) are printed in color, such as the teacher who is demonstrating the principle of jin zhu zhe chi, jin mo zhe hei (one is marked by the company one keeps) by dipping a calligraphy brush into red calligraphy ink and black calligraphy ink.
- 17.
A mausoleum of the Asian conqueror Timur in Samarkand, Uzbekistan.
- 18.
For more information on her life and letter writing, see Welch (2014a).
- 19.
See Bailey (2007) for other examples of private schools across the country. Bailey provides detailed accounts of women who were heavily involved in the push for female education and the difficulties associated with the running of certain schools. See Abe for five case studies of Japanese teachers in China.
- 20.
The preface indicates the need for textbooks for girls’ schools and that the books start off with the physical objects around us then go into the abstract concepts. It also states that because girls like rhymes, the text has many rhymes, and since girls like pictures, there are also many pictures in the textbook. Because letter writing is very practical for females, they will be taught the basics of letter writing from volume 3. The author makes generalizations about gender and reinforces the idea that all girls like the same thing.
- 21.
See Dorothy Ko (2005) for more on the history of foot-binding.
- 22.
The book is designed for the reader to learn to recognize Chinese characters, first by looking at the pictures illustrated by Liang Qiutian, then the words next to the picture, and expanding to other characters that are homophones. It is similar to Farnham’s Jingke huayeji (1897) in its coverage of flora and fauna, but includes the Chinese goddess of mercy Guan Yin and other Chinese gods like the thunder god, earth god, and mythical animals like dragons and qilin (hooved chimerical creature). In addition, some of the animal illustrations are not as realistic as the detailed woodcut engravings in the missionary textbooks.
- 23.
Because the Commercial Press had close ties with the Office of the XHYB , it is not surprising to find this illustration of the girls studying in the primer by Du.
- 24.
The title has been translated as Three School Girls, Three Little Daughters, and The Story of Three Little Girls. Crawford “spoke the best Chinese I ever heard, the Chinese themselves not excepted,” according to Cicero Washington Pruitt (1857–1946) (cited in Hyatt 1976, 87). There are several illustrations in the original, but there is only one illustration that is reproduced in the abridged story. What is noticeable is the tract has detailed illustrations of Jesus and other scenes from the Bible stories mentioned in the text but the one of Sufang and Susen was probably an original produced by a Chinese artist because of its visual style.
- 25.
According to Hyatt, “her [Xilin’s] daughters are sold into concubinage, and her unfilial son runs off to become a bandit,” but the text only mentions one daughter is sold and all three sons become bandits (Crawford 1872, 26). Hyatt also makes a mistake in relating the end of the story when he states that “she tells her loyal schoolmate, ‘My body may rot in the ground, but my soul goes to Jesus’” (1976, 84). This statement is actually directed at the doctor, not Sufang.
- 26.
Blumenthal’s analysis of 252 children’s stories published between 1970 and 1974 reveals that two-thirds of the stories include negative models who were held in contrast to the positive models.
- 27.
The Chinese book includes an English table of contents. I refer to the stories by their English titles. The titles of some stories have changed from the ones in Julia M. Dewey’s book: “The Boy who Recommends Himself” became “The Best Recommendation,” while “Honest Rob” became “The Honest Bootblack.”
- 28.
The Young Gideon (1866b), translated by Jonathan Lees as Lingli xiaohai (The Clever Child), also features a child who rejects idols. The tract is about an unspecified island in the Pacific that is beautiful in physical surroundings but dark in that the people there do not know God. They were naked, did not live in houses, worshipped idols, and fought constantly. However, some people repented, started going to church, and also learned how to read. Among the converts is a boy who, while his parents are away, decides to set fire to the idols in his house to see if they have any power. He believes he will destroy the idols. First, he kneels before God to ask for protection, but seeing the flames, he starts to worry what his parents will think and runs into the forest to pray. When his parents come back to find that the idols had been burnt and their son gone, they think that the idols have taken him away. They run to the church searching for their son. The pastor helps them and they eventually find him in the forest. The parents are so relieved that he is safe that they decide to believe in God as well. The child grows up to become a famous pastor. The narrator concludes by addressing the Chinese readers, telling them that although they are not as “terrible” as the people on the island, they still have some bad habits, including worshipping idols, which should be stopped. The narrator explains the love of God, referring to John 3:16, and asks the people to repent because worshipping idols goes against God. He encourages them to be like the child in the story. Although the title of the Chinese text suggests that the boy is a clever child, his actions suggest otherwise; he runs away from the fire, which could have burned down the house, rather than staying to make sure his home was safe.
- 29.
This is based on Yu Shao’s Stories for Daily Learning (Riji gushi). See Chapter 5 of Shaping the Ideal Child for analysis of Stories for Daily Learning (Bai 2005b).
- 30.
In another variant of the story Mencius’s mother cuts the thread when Mencius stops in the middle of reciting his lessons because he allowed his mind to wander (Zhou 2009, 358).
- 31.
They were published in the December 1902 edition of Liang Qichao’s magazine New Fiction.
- 32.
Another chapter introduces different types of toys that children played with, including a large variety of dolls, tops, rattles, toy animals, toy instruments, and toy carts. An entire chapter is dedicated to block toys and how the pieces are used to illustrate stories and lessons.
- 33.
C. Campbell Brown of the English Presbyterian Mission describes some of the games Chinese children play in Children of China (1909, 37–40).
- 34.
Guide to the Circle of Knowledge (1873b) contains the same two lessons on children’s play.
- 35.
Many of the illustrations used in Wang’s primers and textbooks are the same as the ones found in XHYB , which demonstrates the close connection between the missionary presses and the Commercial Press. For example, Illustrated Chinese First Reader also introduces the lyrebird to readers in Lesson 72, with the same illustration used in the XHYB (Wang 1913, 82). Illustrated Chinese Second Reader also includes the same illustration of the kangaroo and joey that appeared in the XHYB (Wang 1915, 45).
- 36.
In late nineteenth-century Japanese children’s literature, it was considered “novel” to “describe children in a realistic fashion” (Ortabasi 2008, 179). Prior to the translation of Burnett’s Little Lord Fauntleroy into Japanese in 1890, “there was no literature, translated or otherwise, that presented the child, or its relationship to its parents, in a realistic fashion” (185).
- 37.
The cover can be found in the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Library website: https://lbezone.ust.hk/bib/b856038
- 38.
In New Self-Cultivation Textbook (1906), “Guan Ning Cuts the Mat” is another famous story reprinted in simplified format. Guan Ning is studying alongside Hua Xin when someone riding a horse passes by the door. Distracted, Hua Xin goes to see what is happening outside. Guan Ning decides to cut the mat they were sitting on and says to Hua Xin, you are no longer my friend. His extreme behavior is meant to demonstrate how studious he is and his desire to only surround himself with like-minded people.
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Chen, SW.S. (2019). Educating the Child: Textbooks, Primers, and Readers. In: Children’s Literature and Transnational Knowledge in Modern China. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6083-1_5
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