Abstract
The modernization that the Chinese theatre has been going through since the early twentieth century has been twofold – in both the domain of huaju (spoken drama) and that of xiqu (Chinese indigenous theatre). However, the broad scope of such discussions exceeds the remit of this paper. Therefore, the discussions in this paper are focused on the development of Kunqu – a major xiqu form – to shed light on the study of the modernization of Chinese theatre. This paper reviews the major Kunqu productions in mainland China between 2001 and 2013, analyses their specific characteristics, and examines those characteristics against the general tendency of xiqu modernization in the twentieth century. It considers the contemporary development in the early twenty-first century as well as offers expectations as to future trends in modernization.
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Notes
- 1.
Chen Baichen and Dong Jian (1989) take the year 1899 as the moment when the first western-style drama was staged in Shanghai, whereas other scholars believe it was started with the production of Heinu yutian lu (The Black Slave’s Cry to Heaven) based on Harriet Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Chunliu She (the Spring Willow Society ) in Tokyo, Japan in 1907.
- 2.
- 3.
The latter three never achieved the same popularity and predominance onstage as huaju. As a result, in narratives on modern Chinese theatre, huaju has been employed as the default synonym of western theatre, as is to be seen in the essays by Zhang Geng and other Chinese scholars.
- 4.
When viewed in different perspectives, it was also referred to as jiuxi (Old Theatre) in comparison to the “New” and guoju (National Theatre) as against the “Western”.
- 5.
- 6.
“Old Theatre” referred to xiqu, as Zhang Geng explicitly expounded in his later works. See Liu Tao (2004).
- 7.
- 8.
The author’s note.
- 9.
Although the Cultural Revolution ended in 1976, it didn’t connect immediately to the New Era, which arrived following the convening of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in December 1978, at which the Opening up and Reform policy was adopted and the state’s focus shifted to the “construction of socialist modernization”.
- 10.
- 11.
The article in the 2012 Yearbook didn’t provide the details of the 45 productions nor even a list of titles. I unsuccessfully tried to contact the editor-in-chief and the article author to find more information.
- 12.
There is no statistical record in Yearbook 2013 of the new productions in 2013.
- 13.
See Zhao Bo and Xu Jingjing. Shiwuguan 50 nian hou zai jin jing, Kunqu mouqiu quanmian fuxing (Shi wu guan in Beijing after 50 Years – Kunqu Seeks a Full-scale Revitalization); Times Weekly Editorial Office. Kunqu shen yi shi nian dashi ji (Major Events of Kunqu in the 10 Years after the ICH Designation), Time Weekly. 2011 (45); and Yi, Yan. “Kunqu zhe shi nian”(“Kunqu during the 10 Years.”) People’s Daily. 19 May 2011: 20.
- 14.
This circumstance cannot be absolutely confirmed, due to the lack of readily available data concerning audience and productions prior to 2001. In my research, I aim to uncover the specific data by delving into the records at the major Kunqu companies and the State Statistics Bureau of China.
- 15.
To this day, YVPP still inspires public performances, but on most occasions it is in the form of jinghuaban the highlights version, which consists of 7–8 scenes in one night. I did not give a time reference for the highest record on the number of performances given because it is the all-time highest till now.
- 16.
- 17.
There were heated debates on whether Chen’s production of PP was authentic Kunqu, but according to Chen himself, what mattered more to him was the play as a vehicle to demonstrate Chinese culture, not the form of Kunqu (Chen’s interview, 1998).
- 18.
That is of course quoting Bai and other people repeating him, because, strictly speaking, there hasn’t been such a thing as the “one and only” original script. Throughout the years, there are numerous versions of the scripts published and used in actual performance. Bai and his staff certainly stick with one such version, but it is arguable whether they should be considered “authentic” original.
- 19.
It should be noted that (1) Zhou Youliang composed the music with a visual image in mind – at least that was what he said at the interview, so that was a desired effect for the beginning of the play; (2) it was also a contingent device, as Zhou failed to find a cangyin for the Prologue, and Wang Shiyu had to step in, but Wang refused to appear on stage. This is going to be Youth Version! Besides, he was the master teacher. It was inappropriate for him to perform either, though in some cases – to be checked out – Wang was persuaded by Bai to perform anyway. So it is likely that the offstage singing in YVPP was not meant to be how it was adopted in the following productions and used to the extreme as in The Dream, which might be a misunderstanding-led distortion. This detail is yet to be confirmed.
- 20.
Based on my interviews with both Kunqu workers and audience.
- 21.
- 22.
The publications on YVPP are numerous and the opinions varied, the majority of the responses being positive.
- 23.
- 24.
The most recent major example of this is “the advancement of the modernization of national governance system and governance capacity” put forward by Xi Jinping in 2013.
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YANG, M. (2019). The Modernization of Chinese Xiqu with a Case Study of Major Kunqu Productions in Mainland China, 2001–2013. In: Nagata, Y., Chaturvedi, R. (eds) Modernization of Asian Theatres. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6046-6_11
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