Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Salinity Tolerance Indicators

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Research Developments in Saline Agriculture

Abstract

Soil salinity significantly affects agricultural production and environmental quality. A salinity indicator is that symptom which suggests the impacts of soil salinity. The visual characters serve as diagnostic criteria in identifying the salt-affected soils. The physical indicators of salt-affected soils include flocculation, dispersion of clays and surface salt crusts; and conventional chemical indicators of soil salinity include electrical conductivity (EC), pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), electrochemical stability index (ESI) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). Plant species that serve as indicator species can be commonly used in combination with physical and chemical indicators to determine soil salinity. The relationship between soil electrical conductivity and sodium adsorption ratio serves as an important baseline, with modifications such as soil texture, clay type, leaching fraction and rainfall, for a better site-specific understanding of how plants will be affected by salts and, in particular, sodium. Many plant species, found only grown in highly saline soil (true halophytes) or in tidal zone (mangroves), are the indicators of salinity. So is true with many microbes found in mud flats associated with high salinity in mangal formations. The variation of environmental conditions may influence the behaviours of bioindicators including plants and microbes. Halophyte plant species and halotolerant or halophilic bacteria also serve as viable indicators of salinity as they are adaptive to stress through different mechanisms. This chapter discusses various physical, chemical and biological indicators of soil salinity as well as sodicity, their measurements and impacts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrol IP, Chhabra R, Gupta RK (1980) A fresh look at the diagnostic criteria for sodic soils. In: International symposium on salt affected soils. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, February 18–21, pp 142–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Abrol IP, Yadav JSP, Massoud FI (1988) Salt-affected soils and their management, Soils bulletin 39. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • Adam P (1990) Saltmarsh ecology. Cambridge University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Andolfatto P, Bornhouser A, Bohnert HJ, Thomas JC (1994) Transformed hairy roots of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum gene expression patterns upon salt stress. Physiol Plant 90:708–714

    Google Scholar 

  • Arora S, Vanza M (2017) Microbial approach for bioremediation of saline and sodic soils. In: Arora S, Singh AK, Singh YP (eds) Bioremediation of salt affected soils: an Indian perspective. Springer, Cham, pp 87–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Arora S, Bhuva C, Solanki RB, Rao GG (2013) Halophytes for bio-saline agro-forestry and phyto-remediation of coastal saline lands. J Soil Water Conserv 12(3):252–259

    Google Scholar 

  • Arora S, Patel P, Vanza M, Rao GG (2014a) Isolation and characterization of endophytic bacteria colonizing halophyte and other salt tolerant plant species from coastal Gujarat. Afr J Microbiol Res 8(17):1779–1788

    Google Scholar 

  • Arora S, Vanza M, Mehta R, Bhuva C, Patel P (2014b) Halophilic microbes for bio-remediation of salt affected soils. Afr J Microbiol Res 8(33):3070–3078

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayala F, O’Leary JW (1995) Growth and physiology of Salicornia bigelovii Torr. at suboptimal salinity. Int J Plant Sci 156:197–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayars JE, Hutmacher RB, Shoneman RN, Vail SS, Pflaum T (1993) Long term use of saline water for irrigation. Irrig Sci 14:27–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Aziz S, Khan MA (1995) Life history characteristics of a coastal population of Cressa cretica. In: Khan MA, Ungar IA (eds) Biology of salt tolerant plants. University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan, pp 15–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Bañuelos GS, Lin ZQ (2007) Reuse of agricultural drainage water in Central California: phytosustainability in soil with high levels of salinity and toxic trace elements. In: Frossard E, Blum WEH, Warkentin B (eds) Function of soils for human societies and the environment, Special publications 266. The Geological Society, London, pp 79–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Beales N (2004) Adaptation of microorganisms to cold temperatures, weak acid preservatives, low pH, and osmotic stress: a review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 3(1):1–20

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein N, Kafkafi U (2002) Root growth under salinity stress. Plant roots: the hidden half 3:787–805

    Google Scholar 

  • Bower CA (1959) Cation exchange equilibrium in soils affected by sodium salts. Soil Sci 88:32–35

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Breckle SW (1995) How do halophytes overcome salinity? In: Khan MA, Ungar IA (eds) Biology of salt tolerant plants. University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan, pp 199–213

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapman VJ (1976) Coastal vegetation. Pergman Press, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Chu TM, Aspinall D, Paleg LG (1976) Stress metabolism VII. Salinity and proline accumulation in barley. Funct Plant Biol 3(2):219

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corwin DL, Lesch SM (2013) Protocols and guidelines for field-scale measurement of soil salinity distribution with ECa-directed soil sampling. JEEG 18(1):1–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagar JC (1987) Mangrove vegetation, its structure, ecology, management and importance with special reference to Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In: Proceedings of the symposium on Management of Coastal Ecosystems and Oceanic Resources of the Andamans, 17–18 July 1987. Andaman Science Association, Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, pp 8–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagar JC (2003) Biodiversity of Indian saline habitats and management and utilization of high salinity tolerant plants with industrial application for rehabilitation of saline areas. In: Alsharhan AA, Wood WW, Gouie AS, Fowler A, Abdellatif EM (eds) Desertification in the third millennium. Swets and Zeitlinger Publishers, Lisse, pp 151–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagar JC (2008) Indian mangroves: status, management and their plausible benefits for livelihood security. J Indian Soc Coast Agric Res 26(2):121–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagar JC, Sharma AK (1989) Multiple viviparity in mangroves. J Andaman Sci Assoc 5(1):72–73

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagar JC, Singh G (2007) Biodiversity of saline and waterlogged environments: documentation, utilization and management. National Biodiversity Authority, Chennai, p 76

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagar JC, Mongia AD, Bandhyopadhyay AK (1991) Mangroves of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Oxford and IBH, New Delhi, 166 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagar JC, Hari-Bhagwan, Kumar Y (2004a) Effect on growth performance and biochemical contents of Salvadora persica when irrigated with water of different salinity. Indian J Plant Physiol 9(3):234–238

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagar JC, Hari-Bhagwan, Kumar Y (2004b) Seed germination studies of Salvadora persica and Jatropha curcas. Indian J For 27(3):283–289

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagar JC, Tomar OS, Kumar Y, Yadav RK (2004c) Growing three aromatic grasses in alkali soils in semi-arid regions of northern India. Land Degrad Dev 15:143–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagar JC, Yogender-Kumar, Tomar OS (2005) Performance of ornamental and medicinal periwinkle under saline environment. Indian J Hortic 62(2):175–180

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagar JC, Gururaja Rao G, Shukla YK, Sharma HB (2009) Performance of three flower-yielding plants in different sodic soils. Indian J Hortic 66(3):404–409

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubcovsky J, Galvez AF, Dvorak J (1994) Comparison of the genetic organization of the early salt stress response gene system in salt tolerant Lophopyrum elongatum and salt sensitive wheat. Theor Appl Genet 87:957–964

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • El-Haddad EHM, O’Leary JW (1994) Effect of salinity and K/Na ratio of irrigation water on growth and solute content of Atriplex amnicola and Sorghum bicolor. Irrig Sci 14:127–133

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (1970) Physical and chemical methods of soil and water analysis, Soils bulletin, 10. FAO, Rome, p 275

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2008). Land and plant nutrition management service. htpp://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/spush

    Google Scholar 

  • Flowers TJ (1985) Physiology of halophytes. Plant Soil 89:41–56

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flowers TJ, Colmer TD (2008) Salinity tolerance in halophytes. New Phytol 179:945–963

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flowers TJ, Dalmond D (1992) Protein synthesis in halophytes: the influence of potassium, sodium and magnesium in vitro. Plant Soil 146:153–161

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flowers TJ, Hajibagheri MA, Clipson NJW (1986) Halophytes. Q Rev Biol 61:313–337

    Google Scholar 

  • Glenn EP, Olsen M, Frye R, Moore D, Miyamoto S (1994) How much accumulation is necessary for salt tolerance in subspecies of the halophyte Atriplex canescens. Plant Cell Environ 17:711–719

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gunnarsson IB, Svensson SE, Johansson E, Karakashev D, Angelidaki I (2014) Potential of Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) as a biorefinery crop. Ind Crop Prod 56:231–240

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta IC (1972) Note on the relationship between pH of saturated soil paste and 1:2 soil water suspension. Indian J Agric Res 42:962–963

    Google Scholar 

  • Gupta SK, Gupta IC (2014) Salt affected soils: reclamation and management. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur

    Google Scholar 

  • Gupta RK, Singh OP, Abrol IP (1985) Determining cation exchange capacity and exchangeable sodium in alkali soils. Soil Sci 139:326–332

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagemann M (2011) Molecular biology of cyanobacterial salt acclimation. FEMS Microbiol Rev 35(1):87–123

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson B, Grattan SR, Fulton A (1999) Agricultural salinity and drainage. University of California Irrigation Program, University of California, Davis

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardie M, Doyle R (2012) Measuring soil salinity. Methods Mol Biol 913:415–425

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hartlea RT, Fernandez GCJ, Nowaka RS (2006) Horizontal and vertical zones of influence for root systems of four Mojave Desert shrubs. J Arid Environ 64(4):586–603

    Google Scholar 

  • Hesse PR (1971) A textbook of soil chemical analysis. John Murray, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Jamil A, Riaz S, Ashraf M, Foolad MR (2011) Gene expression profiling of plants under salt stress. Crit Rev Plant Sci 30(5):435–458

    Google Scholar 

  • Joshi AJ (1982) Ecophysiological aspects of some tropical salt marsh halophytes. In: Sen DN, Rajpurohit KS (eds) Contribution to the ecology of halophytes – tasks for vegetation science 2. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp 189–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Joshi GV, Jamab BB, Bhosale L (1975) Ion regulation in mangroves. In: Walsh GE, Snedaker SC, Teas HJ (eds) Proceedings of international symposium of biology and management of mangroves, vol II. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, pp 595–607

    Google Scholar 

  • Kathiresan K (2009) Mangroves and coral reefs of India. Compilation of salient findings of research projects supported by Ministry of Environment and Forests (Govt. of India) during 10th Five Year Plan period, p 255

    Google Scholar 

  • Keiffer CH, Ungar IA (1997) The effect of extended exposure to hypersaline conditions on the germination of five inland halophyte species. Am J Bot 84(1):104–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Killham K (1994) Soil ecology (1). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN:0 521 43521 8

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin ZQ, Cervinka V, Pickering IJ, Zayed A, Terry N (2002) Managing selenium contaminated agricultural drainage water by the integrated on-farm drainage management system: role of selenium volatilization. Water Res 12:3149–3159

    Google Scholar 

  • Liphschitz N, Waisel Y (1982) Adaptation of plants to saline environments: salt excretion and glandular structure. In: Sen DN, Rajpurohit KS (eds) Contribution to the ecology of halophytes – tasks for vegetation science 2. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hauge, pp 197–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcum KB, Murdoch CL (1992) Salt tolerance of coastal salt marsh grass Sporobolus virginicus (L.) Kunth. New Phytol 120:281–288

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marcum KB, Murdoch CL (1994) Salinity tolerance mechanisms of six C4 turfgrasses. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 119:779–784

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McNeal BL (1968) Prediction of the effect of mixed salt solutions on soil hydraulic conductivity. Soil Sci Soc Am J 31:190–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller G, Susuki N, Ciftci-Yilmaz S, Mittler R (2010) Reactive oxygen species homeostasis and signalling during drought and salinity stresses. Plant Cell Environ 33:453–467

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mohammed S, Sen DN (1988) A report on polymorphic seeds in halophytes. I. Trianthema triquetra L. in Indian desert. Curr Sci 57:616–617

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohammed S, Sen DN (1990) Biology and ecophysiology of Trianthema portulacastrum L (Molluginaceae) in arid ecosystem. Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 25:145–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Nannipieri P, Gregos S, Ceccanti B (1990) Ecological significance of the biological activity in soil. In: Bollag JM, Stotzy G (eds) Soil biochemistry, vol 6. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 293–355. isbn:0-8247-8232-1

    Google Scholar 

  • Okusanya OT, Fawole T (1985) The possible role of phosphate in the salinity tolerance of Lavatera arborea. J Ecol 73:317–322

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ondrasek G, Rengel Z, Romic D, Savic R (2010) Environmental salinization processes in agro-ecosystem of neretva river estuary. Novenytermeles 59:223–226

    Google Scholar 

  • Oren A (1999) Bioenergetic aspects of halophilism. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 63(2):334–348

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Oren A (2001) The bioenergetic basis for the decrease in metabolic diversity at increasing salt concentrations: implication of the functioning of salt lake ecosystems. Hidrobiología 466(1–3):61–72

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popp M, Albert R (1995) The role of organic solutes in salinity adaptations of mangroves and herbaceous halophytes. In: Khan MA, Ungar IA (eds) Biology of salt tolerant plants. University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan, pp 139–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Rao TA, Suresh PV, Sherieff AN (1986) Multiple viviparity in a few taxa of mangroves. Curr Sci 55:295–261

    Google Scholar 

  • Rao GG, Polra VN, Babu VR (1999a) Salt tolerance studies in Salvadora persica: a facultative halophyte. Indian J Soil Conserv 27(1):55–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Rao GG, Polra VN, Babu VR, Girdhar IK (1999b) Physiology of growth and development of Salvadora persica grown on saline black soils. I. Immature phase. Indian J Plant Physiol 4:152–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Rao GG, Dagar JC, Arora S, Chinchmalatpure AC (2017) Physiology of salt tolerance of Salvadora persica and halophytic grasses in saline vertisols: a review. In: Gupta SK, Goyal MR (eds) Salinity management in agriculture: technological advances and applications. Apple Academic Press Inc., Waretown, pp 137–170

    Google Scholar 

  • Reimann C, Breckle SW (1988) Salt secretion in some Chenopodium species. Flora 180:289–296

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhoades JD (1976) Measuring, mapping and monitoring field salinity and water table depths with soil resistance measurements. In: Prognosis of salinity and alkalinity, Soils bulletin, vol 31. FAO, Rome, pp 159–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes D, Hanson AD (1993) Quaternary ammonium and tertiary sulfonium compounds in higher plants. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 44:357–384

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richards LA (ed) (1954) Diagnosis and improvements of saline and alkali soils. USDA Agriculture Handbook 60, 160 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Samaras Y, Bressan RA, Csonka LN, Garcia-Rios MG, Paino D’Uurzo M, Rhodes D (1995) Proline accumulation during drought and salinity. In: Smirnoff N (ed) Environment and plant metabolism. BIOS Scientific Publishers, Oxford, pp 161–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Scholander PF (1968) How mangroves desalinate water. Physiol Plant 21:251–261

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sen DN, Mohammed S (1991) Ecology and biology of halophytes in Indian arid zone. In: Expanding horizons in botanical research. Proceedings of All India Botanical Seminar held at Bikaner. Arihant Publishers, Jodhpur, pp 87–99

    Google Scholar 

  • Sen DN, Rajpurohit KS, Wissing FW (1982) Survey and adaptive biology of halophytes in western Rajasthan, India. In: Sen DN, Rajpurohit KS (eds) Contribution to the ecology of halophytes, Tasks for vegetation series, vol 2. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hauge, pp 61–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Shabala S (2013) Learning from halophytes: physiological basis and strategies to improve abiotic stress tolerance in crops. Ann Bot 112(7):1209–1221

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma TP, Sen DN (1989) A new report on abnormally fast germinating seeds of Haloxylon spp. – an ecological adaption to saline habitat. Curr Sci 58:382–385

    Google Scholar 

  • Shomer-Ilan A, Waisel Y (1986) Effects of stabilizing solutes on salt activation of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from various plant sources. Physiol Plant 67:408–414

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shomer-Ilan A, Moualem-Beno D, Waisel Y (1985) Effects of NaCl on the properties of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from Suaeda monoica and Chloris gayana. Physiol Plant 65:72–78

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trivedi R (2017) Ecology of saline soil microorganisms. In: Arora S, Singh AK, Singh YP (eds) Bioremediation of salt affected soils: an Indian perspective. Springer, Cham, pp 157–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Trivedi R, Arora S (2013) Characterization of acid and salt tolerant Rhizobium sp. isolated from saline soils of Gujarat. Int Res J Chem 3(3):8–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Ungar IA (1987) Population ecology of halophyte seeds. Bot Rev 53:301–334

    Google Scholar 

  • Ungar IA (1991) Ecophysiology of vascular halophytes. CRC Press, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  • Ungar IA (1994) Seed germination and seed bank ecology. In: Kigel J, Galili G (eds) Seed development and germination. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Ungar IA (1995) Seed bank ecology of halophytes. In: Khan MA, Ungar IA (eds) Biology of salt tolerant plants. University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan, pp 65–79

    Google Scholar 

  • UNSW (2007) Electrochemical stability index (ESI). http://www.terragis.bees.unsw.edu.au/terraGIS_soil/sp_exchangeable_stability_index.html

  • Vogelien DL, Hickok LG, Auge RM, Stodola AJW, Hendrix D (1993) Solute analysis and water relations of gametophyte mutants tolerant to NaCl in the fern Ceratopteris richardii. Plant Cell Environ 16:959–966

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weber DJ (1995) Mechanism and reactions of halophytes to water and salt stress. In: Khan MA, Ungar IA (eds) Biology of salt tolerant plants. University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan, pp 170–180

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams MC (1960) Effect of sodium and potassium salts on growth and oxalate content of Halogeton. Plant Physiol 35:500–505

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wyn Jones RG (1984) Phytochemical aspects of osmotic adaptation. In: Timmermann BN, Steelink C, Loewus FA (eds) Phytochemical adaptation to stress, Recent advances in phytochemistry, vol 18. Plenum Press, New York/London

    Google Scholar 

  • Yaalon DH (1965) Downward movement and distribution of anions in soil profiles with limited wetting. In: Hallsworthy E, Crawford DV (eds) Experimental pedology. Butterworths, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang HH, Long J, Liu X, Zhaopu RZ (2016) Salinity altered root distribution and increased diversity of bacterial communities in the rhizosphere soil of Jerusalem artichoke. Sci Rep 6:20687

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yeo AR, Flowers TJ (1989) Selection for physiological characters-examples from breeding for salt tolerance. In: Jones HG, Flowers TJ, Jones MB (eds) Plants under stress. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/New York

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

    Sanjay Arora

  2. Natural Resource Management, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan-II, Pusa, New Delhi, India

    J. C. Dagar

Authors
  1. Sanjay Arora
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. C. Dagar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sanjay Arora .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Natural Resource Management, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan-II, Pusa, New Delhi, India

    Jagdish Chander Dagar

  2. ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India

    Rajender Kumar Yadav

  3. Natural Resource Management, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan-II, Pusa, New Delhi, India

    Parbodh Chander Sharma

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Arora, S., Dagar, J.C. (2019). Salinity Tolerance Indicators. In: Dagar, J., Yadav, R., Sharma, P. (eds) Research Developments in Saline Agriculture. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5832-6_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation