Abstract
The theories on “space of flows ” and “grassrooting space of flows ” from Manual Castells explain accurately the empowerment furnished by the Internet in the process of globalization, stimulated by elites in this information era, and also the production of anti-globalization regional grass-root activities. The notion of space of flows can be described as the physical and virtual space in which all higher-level transactions (monetary, communicative, informational, etc.) take place, while “grassrooting” refers to the integration of these transactions into local communities. These are the two sides of the same coin. However, there are limitations in the current literature. The current theory on space of flows and grassrooting space of flows focuses primarily on urban areas and does not adequately account for urban-rural relationships that have developed in the last ten years in some areas. As a compelling case study, China’s urban-rural conflict presents interesting elements. In China, the integration of space of flows are clearly reflected in the urban-rural unity and social practices, epitomized in the emergence of county-level rural e-commerce .
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Notes
- 1.
Prof. Zhao Gang pointed out that the traditional stages of China’s historic social system development were not accurate. (Zhao Gan, 赵冈, Chen Zhongyi 陈钟毅. Zhongguo tudi zhidu shi 中国土地制度史 [History of Chinese Land System]. New Star Press 新星出版社, 2006) The mainland scholars, in particular, divide the historic social system based on Marxism’s division of European history, including stages of Primitive Communism, Feudalism, Capitalism, and ultimately socialism. According to Prof. Zhao Gang, this division fits the European context, but not the Chinese context. Chinese scholars had been using this Europe-centric framework to analyse the Chinese history, thus adding a stage of feudal landlord economic system (vs. the European feudal lord system) and a stage of feudal lord system in end of Western-Zhou dynasty. Prof. Zhao Gang argues that China’s land system after the western Zhou (西周) dynasty was totally different from Feudal lord system of European land system. In another words, should we argue that there was Feudalism from the warring states (东周战国) until Qing dynasty, because the land ownership and development right was really traded in the market. The landlord did not get land from the Emperor or King, as what was the case in Europe’s Feudal lord system, but instead bought the land from the market. Prof. Fu Yiling (傅依凌, 1988) replaced the term “feudal society” by “traditional society” in his last paper ‘中国传统社会:多元的结构’ (“China’s traditional society: a diverse/multi-variate structure”), admitting that China has had a dynamic social structure since the end of primitive society. He pointed out that the Chinese society has had a long and complicated evolvement history, with social systems constantly transforming from old to new and combining features of the two. Many different production systems co-existed for a long period in history. He also pointed out that the property system in China had long ago led to a market economy which was dynamic and flexible. Prof. Zhao Gang approached the analysis of the Chinese market economy under private ownership system by illustrating the school of thought of economic systems that property ownership was equivalent to decision making power. In his illustration, the Chinese private ownership system was established early in history, supported by the legal evidence of rural land private ownerships started by the Reforms of Shang Yang (秦国商鞅变法) in the warring states (东周战国). Private ownership system stimulated the formation of markets. Markets are places for transfer and exchange of property ownership (Zhao Gang 赵冈. “论中国传统社会的性质” (“The Characters of Chinese Traditional Society”), 中国社会经济史研究 2 (The Journal of Chinese Social and Economic History) (1998):1–6).
- 2.
Companies who use what is sometimes called “just-in-time” production rely on the flexibility of small batches and numerous small contracts and subcontracts.
- 3.
Time–space compression (also known as space–time compression and time–space distanciation), articulated in 1989 by geographer David Harvey in The Condition of Postmodernity, refers to any phenomenon that alters the qualities of and relationship between space and time. Harvey’s idea was rooted in Karl Marx’s theory of the “annihilation of time and space”.
- 4.
Firstly, products, production and monetary devaluation occurred, as shown by the economic crisis that occurred in the 1930s, leading to tremendous devaluation of capital and money. The Second World War was significantly detrimental to European productivity. Secondly, because of the capitalist tendency of over-accumulation, a balance had to be maintained after the Second World War between Fordist production and Keynesian macro-control. However, the balance remained fragile. Thirdly, the control and eventually the absorption of over-accumulation may be achieved by shifting the time and space features. One of the key elements during this process may be the virtual capital formation as well as the diversification of financing channels on a global scale. Therefore, the Just-In-Time production as a system covering the whole global economy by following a logic of capitalist consumerism may be an important step to achieve this new approach towards space and time. Therefore, the shift from the Fordist production to the Just-in-time production is correlated to the transition from a large-scale production-oriented extensive economy to a market demand-oriented intensive form of economy. Harvey, David. From space to place and back again: Reflections on the condition of postmodernity (1993), and Harvey, David. The condition of postmodernity: An enquiry into the conditions of cultural change (1990).
- 5.
Sassen, Saskia. The global city: New York, London, Tokyo. Princeton University Press, 2001.
- 6.
Weber, Max. “The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, trans.” T. Parsons. Charles Scribner’s Sons. [SA] (1958).
- 7.
Durkheim, Emile. The division of labor in society. Simon and Schuster, 2014.
- 8.
Polanyi, Karl. “The great transformation: Economic and political origins of our time.” Rinehart, New York (1944).
- 9.
Granovetter, Mark. “Economic action and social structure: The problem of embeddedness.” American journal of sociology 91, no. 3 (1985): 481–510.
- 10.
Lefebvre, Henri. The production of space. Vol. 142. Blackwell: Oxford, 1991.
- 11.
Bijker, Wiebe E., Hughes, Thomas P. and Pinch, Trevor (eds) (1987). The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- 12.
Castells, Manuel. The rise of the network society: The information age: Economy, society, and culture. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons, 2011, 18 & 19.
- 13.
Castells, Manuel. The rise of the network society: The information age: Economy, society, and culture. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons, 2011, 18.
- 14.
Hickman, John. Space Is Power: The Seven Rules of Territory. London: Lexington Books, 2016.
- 15.
Lefebvre, Henri. The urban revolution. U of Minnesota Press, 2003.
- 16.
Manuel Castells explained the space of flaws: The “space of flows”, as the material form of support of dominant processes and functions in the informational society, can be described (rather than defined) by the combination of at least three layers of material supports that, together, constitute the space of flows. The first layer, the first material support of the space of flows, is actually constituted by a circuit of electronic exchanges (micro-electronics-based devices, telecommunications, computer processing, broadcasting systems, and high-speed transportation—also based on information technologies) that, together, form the material basis for the processes we have observed as being strategically crucial in the network of society. This is indeed a material support of simultaneous practices. Thus, it is a spatial form, just as it could be “the city” or “the region” in the organization of the merchant society or of the industrial society. The second layer of the space of flows is constituted by its nodes and hubs. The space of flows is not placeless, although its structural logic is. It is based on an electronic network, but this network links up specific places, with well-defined social, cultural, physical, and functional characteristics. Some places are exchangers, communication hubs playing a role of coordination for the smooth interaction of all the elements integrated into the network. Other places are the nodes of the network; that is, the location of strategically important functions that build a series of locality-based activities and organizations around a key function in the network. Location in the node links up the locality with the whole network. Both nodes and hubs are hierarchically organized according to their relative weight in the network. But this hierarchy may change depending upon the evolution of activities processed through the network. Indeed, in some instances, some places may be switched off the network, their disconnection resulting in instant decline, and thus in economic, social and physical deterioration. The characteristics of nodes are dependent upon the type of functions performed by a given network. The third important layer of the space of flows refers to the spatial organization of the dominant, managerial elites (rather than classes) that exercise the directional functions around which such space is articulated. The theory of the space of flows starts from the implicit assumption that societies are asymmetrically organized around the dominant interests specific to each social structure. The space of flows is not the only spatial logic of our societies.
- 17.
Castells, Manuel. The rise of the network society: The information age: Economy, society, and culture. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons, 2011.
- 18.
Manuel Carstells has a detailed illustration under the chapter “The Space of Flows” in the book.
- 19.
Stephen Graham, (ed), The Network Society: A New Context for Planning (Routledge 2005), 105.
- 20.
Castells specified five points regarding to the dimensions of the space of flows:
“First, I will refer to a series of dimensions of autonomous expression of social meaning in the space of flows, with emphasis in electronic spaces, but in interaction with the space of place.”
“A second dimension for autonomous expression is represented by purposive, horizontal communication, not just personal feeling of casual communication.”
“Third, there is a fast growth of networks of solidarity and cooperation in the internet, with people bringing together their resources, to live and to survive.”
“The fourth dimension is social movement. The net is used increasingly by social movements, of all kinds, as their organizing ground and as their privileged means to break their isolation.”
“Fifth, linkages are a development that we have to pay close attentions to, increasing linkage between people and institutions in an interactive process.”
“The attempt by capital, media, and power to escape into the abstraction of the space of flows, bypassing democracy and experience by confining them in the space of place, is being challenged from many sources by the grassrooting of the space of flows.”
- 21.
Castells, Manuel. “Grassrooting the space of flows.” Urban Geography 20, no. 4 (1999): 294–302.
- 22.
Nie, Norman H., and Lutz Erbring. “Internet and society.” Stanford Institute for the quantitative study of society 3 (2000).
- 23.
Feiner, Steven, Blair MacIntyre, Tobias Höllerer, and Anthony Webster. “A touring machine: Prototyping 3D mobile augmented reality systems for exploring the urban environment.” Personal Technologies 1, no. 4 (1997): 208–217.
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Nikou, Shahrokh, Julian Tarvoll, and Anssi Öörni. “Impact of Playing Pokémon Go on Wellness.” In Proceedings of the 51st Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. 2018.
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Stone, Peter, Rodney Brooks, Erik Brynjolfsson, Ryan Calo, Oren Etzioni, Greg Hager, Julia Hirschberg et al. “Artificial intelligence and life in 2030.” One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence: Report of the 2015–2016 Study Panel (2016).
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When Artificial Intelligence Rules the City, Richard Florida, May 16, 2017 https://www.citylab.com/life/2017/05/when-artificial-intelligence-rules-the-city/509999/.
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Cellan-Jones, Rory. “Stephen Hawking warns artificial intelligence could end mankind.” BBC News 2 (2014): 2014.
- 28.
Castells, Manuel. End of millennium. Vol. 3. John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
- 29.
Melucci, Alberto. Challenging codes: Collective action in the information age. Cambridge University Press, 1996.
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Dean, Jodi. “Cybersalons and civil society: Rethinking the public sphere in transnational technoculture.” Public culture 13, no. 2 (2001): 265.
- 31.
Wellman, Barry, and Barry Leighton. “Networks, neighborhoods, and communities: Approaches to the study of the community question.” Urban affairs quarterly 14, no. 3 (1979): 363–390.
- 32.
Wellman, Barry. “Physical place and cyberplace: The rise of personalized networking.” International journal of urban and regional research 25, no. 2 (2001): 227.
- 33.
- 34.
Webster, Frank, ed. Culture and politics in the information age: a new politics?. Routledge, 2002: 13.
- 35.
Ho, Kong-Chong, Randy Kluver, and C. C. Yang, eds. Asia. com: Asia encounters the Internet. Routledge, 2003: 68.
- 36.
Yu Hairong 于海荣, Wang Xinyi 王辛夷. “央地财政关系再调整.” [Central government financial relations and then adjust]. Weekly Caixin 财新周刊 35 (2016): 30–32.
- 37.
Zhang Xiaohe 张晓鸽 (2013, Oct. 28th). Zhengdi chaiqian boji 16% jiating 征地拆迁波及16%家庭 [Requisition of land affected 16% Family]. 2013. http://epaper.jinghua.cn/html/2013-10/28/content_35335.htm (accessed Oct., 28, 2013).
- 38.
Landscape China. (2014.11.13) Li Zi: Global E-Commerce Development and the New Pattern of Urbanization in Rural China. (Sorted based on Mr. Li’s speech delivered at the sub-forum themed “Urbanization” for the “2014 Beijing Forum” in Peking University on 8th, Nov. 2014) Landscape China: http://www.landscape.cn/news/comment/celebrity/2014/1113/171849.html.
- 39.
Lefebvre, Henri. The urban revolution. U of Minnesota Press, 2003.
- 40.
Castells Manuel. GRASSROOTING THE SPACE OF FLOWS [J]. Urban Geography. 1999 20(4), 294–302.
- 41.
Networked network is formed due to decentralized conglomerates, semi-autonomous business units, increasing number of SMEs, networks established by SMEs, or merely by small or large enterprises working together.
- 42.
Foray, D., and C. Freeman. “Technologie et Richesse des Nations Economica.” (1992).
- 43.
According to the 38th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by CNNIC in July 2016, up to June 2016, the number of netizens in China reached 710 million, with 21.32 million more users in the first half of 2016, an increase of 3.1%. http://www.cnnic.cn/gywm/xwzx/rdxw/2016/201608/W020160803204144417902.pdf?sukey=3997c0719f1515206532f1c7a66bb8b11d4628bded1c5c4a9ca8e52d71b4fba3ed5d094eacf871ac6772576fb511ae09.
- 44.
Imai, Ken’ichi. “Joho netto waku shakai no tenbo [The Information Network Society].” Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo (1990).
- 45.
“九州通试点电子处方 与阿里健康、武汉市中心医院构建完整远程医疗体系” [Jointown Pharmaceutical Group trials electronic prescribing to build a complete telemedicine system with AliHealth and the Central Hospital of Wuhan]. 2016. Vcbeat.Net. http://vcbeat.net/28303.
- 46.
Campbell, Duncan. “Foreign investment, labour immobility and the quality of employment.” Int’l Lab. Rev. 133 (1994): 185.
- 47.
CASTELLS, M. “The information city: information technology, economic restructuring, and the urban-regional process. Padstow (Great Britain).” (1989).
- 48.
According to Decision on Comprehensively Deepening Reform of Supply and Marketing Cooperatives published by the State Council, “it is imperative to adapt to the profound changes in business model and consumption. We will encourage supply and marketing cooperatives to develop e-commerce. We aim to integrate operations that covers online transaction, warehousing, logistics and delivery, so that online and offline businesses can grow in a coordinated way.”
- 49.
JD.com have their own logistic.
- 50.
SF is exploring a new delivery model for raw and fresh foods.
- 51.
YouCan Group intensifies its efforts to improve its supply chain for agricultural products and focuses on innovating cold chain for raw and fresh foods in Hangzhou.
- 52.
On the one hand, Taoshihui connects rural shops via the Internet to create a new model: build an online platform while running chain stores offline; it expands offerings of rural shops by introducing e-shelves; it focuses on counties while deliver goods with those of rural shops, so that it creates a commodity and service marketing network in rural areas. on the other hand, to sell its agricultural products to other places of the country, Taoshihui establish a cross-supplying and purchasing platform that links various counties so that local specialties can be sold elsewhere.
- 53.
Lecuntao is an 020 e-commerce platform in rural China. It upgrades the existing grocery stores in villages into offline experience centers, so that villagers can shop online occasionally, deliver packages in batches, and manufacturers and businesses can sell to villagers directly via the Internet in wholesale price.
- 54.
Cuncunle is a web portal through which villagers can have access to news, local information, commercial trends and social services. By now it has 10 million registered users.
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Zi, L. (2019). From Globalization to China’s Urbanization. In: Online Urbanization. Advances in 21st Century Human Settlements. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3603-4_2
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