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The Role of the SAARC: Way Forward

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Climate Refugees in South Asia

Part of the book series: International Law and the Global South ((ILGS))

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Abstract

South Asia has been witnessing an earth-shattering humanitarian crisis of migration and forced displacement due to unparalleled global, regional and internal disturbances resulting in systematic and gross transgressions of the global human rights mandate, international humanitarian law obligations and climate change law norms. There are more than 3 million refugees in South Asia, and 90% out of them are victims and product of intra-regional migration. The SAARC jurisdictions are both refugee-producing and refugee-hosting nation-states. Pakistan has been hosting the most massive refugees of Afghan origin; India is home to the diverse groups of intra- and extra-regional refugees including latest addition of Rohingya refugees, and rest of the SAARC nations are also bracing the refugee crises in the region, and the crisis is further compounded by the returnees from the Global North countries. Among the SAARC jurisdictions, there is a problem of negative attitude towards refugees based on preposterous political indoctrination. The instant chapter examines the relevance of refugee crisis to regional collaboration and advocates for a regional institution to address the crisis while critically evaluating the role of the SAARC in protecting the rights of climate change-induced displaced persons. The needs of the SAARC countries have galvanized an understanding to address the complexity of the climate change migration by adopting a SAARC Climate Declaration and an Action Plan on Climate Change. Therefore, the SAARC is gradually ushering in the climate change field. However, the institution is structurally and politically weak. The matters get further dimmer as the position of countries in SAARC varies regarding climate change refugees with Maldives and Bangladesh expressing opinion in favour of their recognition and protection. Primarily, the chapter tries to identify the climate change consciousness and challenges in South Asia and climate law responses of the SAARC by espousing the hybrid integration of international legal norms with regional aspirations. It recognizes the need for regional trans-boundary cooperation to address the climate change displacement and migration and makes a case for the advocacy for an alternative regional regime on climate refugees.

The authors acknowledge the research assistance rendered by Amit Kumar, Tanaya Thakur, Sumedha Chaudhury, Manini Syali, Ravneet Sandhu, LLM students at SAU and Kanika Jamwal, an LLB student at RGNUL, Patiala.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ‘Climate Change 2014: Synthesis report’ (Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment report of the IPCC, Geneva, 2014) http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/SYR_AR5_FINAL_full_wcover.pdf accessed 16 December 2018.

  2. 2.

    Debra Utacia Krol, ‘In Louisiana, A Plan to Relocate the Country’s First “Climate Refugees” Hits a Roadblock’ Huffington Post (23 March 2018) https://www.huffingtonpost.in/entry/louisiana-climate-refugees-plan-roadblock_us_5ab402ade4b008c9e5f55c1b accessed 21 April 2018.

  3. 3.

    Ibid.

  4. 4.

    Arabinda Mishra et al., ‘Climate Risks in the SAARC Region: Ways to Address the Social, Economic & Environmental Challenges’ (The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi, 2012, Project report No. 2012GW03) 60 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283436395_Climate_risks_in_the_SAARC_region_ways_to_address_the_social_economic_environmental_challenges accessed 23 June 2018.

  5. 5.

    Kanta Kumari Rigaud, Alex de Sherbinin, Bryan Jones, Jonas Bergmann, Viviane Clement, Kayly Ober, Jacob Schewe, Susana Adamo, Brent McCusker, Silke Heuser, Amelia Midgley, ‘Groundswell: Preparing for Internal Climate Migration’ (World Bank, Washington, DC, 2018) 181 https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29461 accessed 20 May 2018.

  6. 6.

    Frank Biermann and Ingrid Boas, ‘Preparing for a Warmer World: Towards a Global Governance System to Protect Climate Refugees’ (2010) 10(1) Global Envt’l Politics 60–88 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Frank_Biermann/publication/227627225_Preparing_for_a_Warmer_World_Towards_a_Global_Governance_System_to_Protect_Climate_Refugees/links/5422bc260cf238c6ea6b866f/Preparing-for-a-Warmer-World-Towards-a-Global-Governance-System-to-Protect-Climate-Refugees.pdf accessed on 25 May 2018; Esmaralda Colombo, ‘Land or Utopia? Seeking a New Climate for Migration’ (2015) Green European Journal http://www.greeneuropeanjournal.eu/land-utopia-seeking-new-climatemigration/ accessed 19 April 2018; Astrid Epiney, ‘“Environmental Refugees”: Aspects of International State Responsibility’ in Jane McAdam (ed.), Climate Change and Displacement: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (Bloomsbury Publishing 151–75; International Organization for Migration, ‘Migration, Climate Change and the Environment’ (2009) IOM Policy Brief 4 https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/our_work/ICP/IDM/iom_policybrief_may09_en.pdf accessed on 25 June 2018.

  7. 7.

    Ibid., see also Clionadh Raleigh, Lisa Jordan and Idean Salehyan, Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Migration and Conflict, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/SDCCWorkingPaper_MigrationandConflict.pdf accessed on 25 June 2018.

  8. 8.

    Asian Development Bank, ‘Addressing Climate Change and Migration in Asia and the Pacific’ (ADB, 2012) https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/29662/addressing-climate-change-migration.pdf accessed 18 April, 2018.

  9. 9.

    Ibid, 41, Nansen Initiative Regional Consultation, ‘Climate Change, Disasters and Human Mobility in South Asia’ (Nansen Initiative South Asia Regional Civil Society Meeting, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2–3 February 2015) 17–18 http://www.nanseninitiative.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/07/150715_FINAL_OUTCOME_REPORT_SOUTH_ASIA_REGIONAL_CIVIL_SOCIETY_MEETING_screen.pdf accessed 25 June 2018.

  10. 10.

    ‘Addressing Climate Change and Migration in Asia and the Pacific’ (n 8) see also, Gunvor Jónsson, ‘The Environmental Factor in migration Dynamics—A Review of African Case Studies’, International Migration Institute, Working Paper 21, 2010. https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/WP21%20The%20Environmental%20Factor%20in%20Migration%20Dynamics.pdf accessed 10 June 2018.

  11. 11.

    Nansen Initiative Regional Consultation (n 9).

  12. 12.

    Partha S. Ghosh, Unwanted and Uprooted: A Political Study of Migrants, Refugees, Stateless and Displaced of South Asia (Sanskriti, 2004), 40 &152.

  13. 13.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘About SAARC’ (SAARC) http://saarc-sec.org/about-saarc accessed 01 March 2018.

  14. 14.

    Lawrence Saez, The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC): An Emerging Collaboration Architecture, Routledge (2012) 8. See generally for Organisations, Robert Presthus, The Organisational Society: An Analysis and A Theory (Virtage Books, New York, 1962).

  15. 15.

    Charter of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (adopted 8 December 1985) 4 ASYIL 473 (SAARC Charter) art II; and Charter of the United Nations (adopted 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS XVI (UN Charter) art 1.

  16. 16.

    UN Charter (n 15) art 2(1).

  17. 17.

    SAARC Charter (n 15); UN Charter (n 15) art 2(4).

  18. 18.

    Ibid.

  19. 19.

    SAARC Charter (n 15); UN Charter (n 15) art 2(4).

  20. 20.

    SAARC Charter (n 15); UN Charter (n 15) art 2(7).

  21. 21.

    SAARC Charter (n 15); UN Charter (n 15) art 33(1).

  22. 22.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (n 13).

  23. 23.

    Afghanistan joined the SAARC as member in April 2007.

  24. 24.

    Sobhan Rehman, ‘Regional Economic Cooperation in South Asia’ in Pradip Ghosh, A Modernization Perspective (Greenwood Press, London, 1984) 268–271.

  25. 25.

    Moazzen Hussain, Iyanlur Islam, Reza Kibra, South Asian Economic Development: Transformation, Opportunities and Challenges (Routledge Publishers, London, New York, 1999).

  26. 26.

    Kishore Dash, ‘The Political Economy of Regional Cooperation in South Asia’ (1996) 69(2) Pacific Affairs 185–209, 205.

  27. 27.

    SAARC Charter (n 15) art III.

  28. 28.

    SAARC Charter (n 15) art IV.

  29. 29.

    SAARC Charter (n 15) art V.

  30. 30.

    SAARC Charter (n 15) art IV (a).

  31. 31.

    SAARC Charter (n 15) art IV (b).

  32. 32.

    SAARC Charter (n 15) art IV (c).

  33. 33.

    SAARC Charter (n 15) art IV (d).

  34. 34.

    SAARC Charter (n 15) art IV (e).

  35. 35.

    SAARC Charter (n 15) art VI.

  36. 36.

    SAARC Charter (n 15) art VII.

  37. 37.

    Suman Sharma, India and SAARC (Gyan Publishing house, New Delhi, 2002) 147.

  38. 38.

    Rekha Singh Yadav, ‘Chapter IV: SAARC summits: India’s Stand’ (Shodhganga, 2012) 115–116. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/86856/13/13_chapter%204.pdf accessed 01 March 2018.

  39. 39.

    Suman Sharma, ‘Climate Change in South Asia and Regional Initiatives: A Case Study of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Initiatives’ (All Academic Research) 10 http://citation.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/5/0/0/5/5/pages500558/p500558-10.php accessed 01 March 2018.

  40. 40.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘The Kathmandu Declaration of the Heads of State or Government of the member countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation’ (3rd SAARC summit, Kathmandu, 4 November 1987) (Kathmandu Declaration) http://saarc-sec.org/uploads/digital_library_document/03-Kathmandu-3rdSummit1987.pdf accessed 01 March 2018.

  41. 41.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘The Islamabad Declaration of the Heads of State or Government of the member countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation’ (4th SAARC summit, Islamabad, 31 December 1988) (Islamabad Declaration) http://saarc-sec.org/uploads/digital_library_document/04-Islamabad-4thSummit1988.pdf accessed 01 March 2018; Manju Jain, Fourth ‘SAARC summit Islamabad Declaration’ (1989) 2(1) Indian J. Asian Affairs 56–64.

  42. 42.

    Ibid.

  43. 43.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘The Male Declaration of the Heads of State or Government of the member countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation’ (5th SAARC summit, Male, 23 November 1990) (Male Declaration) http://saarc-sec.org/uploads/digital_library_document/05-Maldives-5thSummit1990.pdf accessed 01 March 2018.

  44. 44.

    Ibid.

  45. 45.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, Regional study on the causes and consequences of natural disasters and the protection and preservation of the environment (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, 1992).

  46. 46.

    Down to earth, ‘SAARC ratifies committee on environment’ (Indian Environment Portal, 14 August 1992) http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/content/33045/saarc-ratifies-committee-on-environment/ accessed 03 March 2018.

  47. 47.

    Male Declaration (n 43).

  48. 48.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘The Colombo Declaration of the Heads of State or Government of the member countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation’ (6th SAARC summit, Colombo, 21 December 1991) (Colombo Declaration) http://saarc-sec.org/uploads/digital_library_document/06-COLOMBO-6thSummit1991.pdf accessed 01 March 2018.

  49. 49.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘The Dhaka Declaration of the Heads of State or Government of the member countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation’ (7th SAARC summit, Dhaka, 11 April 1993) (Dhaka Declaration) http://saarc-sec.org/uploads/digital_library_document/07-Dhaka-7thSummit1993.pdf accessed 02 March 2018.

  50. 50.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘SAARC Environment Action Plan 1997’ (3rd Meeting of the SAARC Environment Ministers, Dhaka, 3 July 2008) http://saarc-sec.org/assets/responsive_filemanager/source/Files%20for%20Areas%20of%20Cooperation/ENB/SAARC%20ENVIRONMENT%20ACTION%20PLAN.docx accessed 01 March 2018.

  51. 51.

    Ibid ‘Environment Assessment’.

  52. 52.

    SAARC, ‘Environment Action Plan’ (n 50) ‘Aims and Strategies’.

  53. 53.

    SAARC, ‘Environment Action Plan’ (n 50) ‘Environmental Assessment’.

  54. 54.

    SAARC, ‘Environment Action Plan’ (n 50) ‘Regional Institutions’.

  55. 55.

    SAARC, ‘Environment Action Plan’ (n 50) ‘Legal Framework’.

  56. 56.

    SAARC, ‘Environment Action Plan’ (n 50) ‘Implementation’.

  57. 57.

    Ibid.

  58. 58.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘Islamabad Declaration’ (12th SAARC summit, Islamabad, 06 January 2004) http://saarc-sec.org/uploads/digital_library_document/12_-_Islamabad_-12th_SAARC_Summit,_4-6_January_2004.pdf accessed 01 March 2018; Saleemul Huq, ‘The South Asian For Regional Cooperation’ in Michael H Glants (ed), The role of Regional Organisations in the context of Climate Change (NATO ASI Series1: (Springer 1994)) 28 Baniateiling Majaw, ‘Climate Change and South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation: A Regional Response’ (2012) 2(4) IJSCHS 71–80, 75 http://www.sobiad.org/ejournals/journal_ijss/arhieves/2012_2/baniateilang_majaw.pdf accessed 03 March 2018.

  59. 59.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘The Dhaka Declaration’ (13th SAARC summit, Dhaka, 13 November 2015) http://saarc-sec.org/uploads/digital_library_document/13_-_Dhaka_-_13th_Summit_12-13_Nov_2005.pdf accessed 02 March 2018.

  60. 60.

    Yadav (n 38) 158.

  61. 61.

    id, 159–160.

  62. 62.

    SAARC, ‘SAARC Comprehensive Disaster Management Framework 2006’ (SAARC Expert Group Meeting, Dhaka, 9 February 2006) https://www.preventionweb.net/files/2637_SAARCRegionalframeworkforDM.doc accessed 01 March 2018.

  63. 63.

    Yadav (n 38) 164.

  64. 64.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘SAARC Action Plan on Climate Change 2008’ (SAARC Ministerial Meeting on Climate Change, 3 July 2008) http://saarc-sec.org/assets/responsive_filemanager/source/Files%20for%20Areas%20of%20Cooperation/ENB/SAARC%20ACTION%20PLAN%20ON%20CLIMat.%20CHANGE.docx accessed 01 March 2018.

  65. 65.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘Regional Cooperation on Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction in South Asia: Road Map’ (SAARC Workshop on Climate Change and Disasters—Emerging Trends and Future Strategies, Kathmandu, 21–22 August 2008) http://www.ifrc.org/docs/IDRL/Regional%20strategies%20on%20disaster%20management/Regional%20Cooperation%20on%20Climate%20Change%20Adaption%20on%20Disaster%20Risk%20Reduction%20in%20South%20Asia.pdf accessed 02 March 2018.

  66. 66.

    SAARC, ‘Action Plan’ (n 64).

  67. 67.

    Ibid.

  68. 68.

    Ibid.

  69. 69.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘The Colombo Declaration Partnership for Growth for Our People’ (15th SAARC summit, Colombo, 3 August 2008) (Colombo Declaration) http://saarc-sec.org/uploads/digital_library_document/15_-_Colombo,_15th_Summit_2-3_August_2008_-_for_printing.pdf accessed 02 March 2018.

  70. 70.

    Ibid.

  71. 71.

    SAARC, ‘Colombo Declaration’ (n 69).

  72. 72.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘Thimpu Statement on Climate Change’ (Heads of State or Government, 16th SAARC summit, Thimpu, 28–29 April 2010) SAARC/SUMMIT.16/15 (Thimpu Statement) http://saarc-sec.org/assets/responsive_filemanager/source/Files%20for%20Areas%20of%20Cooperation/ENB/THIMPHU%20STATEMENT%20ON%20CLIMat.%20CHANGE.docx accessed 01 March 2018.

  73. 73.

    Ibid.

  74. 74.

    SAARC, ‘Thimpu Statement’ (n 72).

  75. 75.

    Ibid.

  76. 76.

    Ibid.

  77. 77.

    Ibid.

  78. 78.

    Ibid.

  79. 79.

    Ibid.

  80. 80.

    Ibid.

  81. 81.

    Ibid.

  82. 82.

    Ibid.

  83. 83.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘The Addu Declaration: Building Bridges’ (17th SAARC summit, Maldives, 11 November 2011) (Addu Declaration) http://saarc2014.ekantipur.com/pdf/17thSummit2011.pdf accessed 01 March 2018.

  84. 84.

    South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, ‘Agreement on Rapid Response to Natural Disasters’ (17th SAARC summit, Maldives, 11 November 2011) http://saarc-sec.org/uploads/digital_library_document/28_Rapid_response_to_Natural_disasters.pdf accessed 02 March 2018.

  85. 85.

    Ibid art III.

  86. 86.

    SAARC, ‘Addu Declaration’ (n 84) art III (1).

  87. 87.

    Ibid art III (4).

  88. 88.

    Ibid art IV.

  89. 89.

    The Declaration has decided to establish the SAARC Environment and Disaster Management Centre by merging the earlier institutions established the SAARC Forestry Centre (Bhutan), SAARC Disaster Management Centre (India), SAARC Coastal Zones Management Centre (Maldives) and SAARC Meteorological Centre (Bangladesh).

  90. 90.

    ‘The SAARC Declarations on Climate Change’ (Equity and Justice Working Group Bangladesh) http://www.equitybd.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/The-SAARC-Declarations-on-Climate-Change.pdf accessed 05 March 2018.

  91. 91.

    Dr. Manzoor Ahmad, ‘SAARC summits 1985–2016: The Cancellation Phenomenon’ (2017) XVII (1) IPRI Journal 43–71.

  92. 92.

    Ibid, 48.

  93. 93.

    Raghav Thapar, ‘SAARC Ineffective in Promoting Economic Cooperation in South Asia’ (2006) 7(1) SJIR https://web.stanford.edu/group/sjir/7.1.03_thapar.html accessed 04 March 2018.

  94. 94.

    Ibid see also Parvez Hassan, ‘Environmental Jurisprudence from Pakistan-Some Lessons for SAARC Region’ (South Asia Conference on Environmental Justice, 24–25 March 2012, Bhurban, Pakistan). https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/pk_1_environmental_jurisprudence_from_pakistan___some_lessons_for_the_saarc_region__d.pdf accessed 08 March 2018.

  95. 95.

    International Organization for Migration; United Nations Refugee Agency; United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, World Bank; Asian Development Bank; Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre; and Friends of the earth.

  96. 96.

    Bonnie Docherty, Tyler Giannini ‘Confronting A Rising Tide: A Proposal for A Convention On Climate Change Refugees’ (2009) 33 Harv. Envt’l Rev 349-403.

  97. 97.

    Ibid, 372–373.

  98. 98.

    Ibid, 368.

  99. 99.

    Ibid.

  100. 100.

    Ibid 370.

  101. 101.

    Ibid, 374.

  102. 102.

    Ibid, 376.

  103. 103.

    Ibid.

  104. 104.

    Ibid, 379.

  105. 105.

    Ibid.

  106. 106.

    Ibid, 382.

  107. 107.

    Ibid.

  108. 108.

    Frank Biermann & Ingrid Boas, ‘Protecting Climate Refugees: The Case for a Global Protocol, Environment’ (2008) 50(6) Science & Policy for Sustainable Development 8–17.

  109. 109.

    Ibid 15.

  110. 110.

    Ibid, 13.

  111. 111.

    (Ibid) 12.

  112. 112.

    Ibid.

  113. 113.

    Ibid 12.

  114. 114.

    Ibid, 14.

  115. 115.

    (Ibid) 13.

  116. 116.

    Ibid.

  117. 117.

    Ibid, 13.

  118. 118.

    UNHCR has been dealing with the political refugees, asylum seekers, returnees, stateless people and a portion of the world’s Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). See, Frank Biermann and Ingrid Boas, ‘Climate Change and Human Migration: Towards a Global Governance System to Protect Climate Refugees’ in Jürgen Scheffran, Michael Brzoska, Hans Günter Brauch, Peter Michael Link, Janpeter Schilling (eds), Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict: Challenges for Societal Stability (Springer, Berlin, 2012) 291–300.

  119. 119.

    Stephen Castles, ‘Environmental change and forced migration: making sense of the debate: New Issues in Refugee Research’ (2002) Oxford Refugee Studies Centre Working Paper 70, 8 http://tinyurl.com/cjrr4cy accessed 11 May 2018.

  120. 120.

    David Hodgkinson, Tess Burton, Heather Anderson and Lucy Young, ‘Convention for Persons Displaced by Climate Change’, (2010) 36(1) Monash L. Rev. 69 http://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MonashULawRw/2010/4.html accessed 01 May 2018.

  121. 121.

    Ibid.

  122. 122.

    Ibid.

  123. 123.

    Ibid.

  124. 124.

    Kniveton et al., Climate Change and Migration: Improving Methodologies to Estimate Flows 30 (Research Series No 33, International Organisation for Migration, 2008).

  125. 125.

    Hodgkinson, Burton, Anderson and Young (n 120).

  126. 126.

    Ibid.

  127. 127.

    Ibid.

  128. 128.

    Ibid.

  129. 129.

    Ibid.

  130. 130.

    Angela Williams, ‘Turning the Tide: Recognizing Climate Change Refugees in International Law’ (2008) 30(4) Law and Policy 502–529.

  131. 131.

    Ibid, 517.

  132. 132.

    Ibid, 518.

  133. 133.

    Ibid, 519.

  134. 134.

    Ibid.

  135. 135.

    Ibid 519.

  136. 136.

    Ibid 520.

  137. 137.

    Ibid.

  138. 138.

    Ibid, 521.

  139. 139.

    Ibid, 522.

  140. 140.

    Ibid, 502, 519.

  141. 141.

    Cosmin Corendea, ‘Regionalism, Human Rights and Migration in Relation to Climate Change’ (The Conversation, 1 March 2018) https://theconversation.com/regionalism-human-rights-and-migration-in-relation-to-climate-change-90129 accessed 10 April 2018.

  142. 142.

    Ibid.

  143. 143.

    Ibid.

  144. 144.

    Ibid.

  145. 145.

    Cosmin Corendea, ‘Hybrid Legal Approaches Towards Climate Change: Concepts, Mechanisms and Implementation’ (2016) 21(1) Ann. Surv. Int'l & Comp. L29-41.

  146. 146.

    R. P. Anand, Studies in International Law and History: An Asian Perspective (Leiden, Boston and New Delhi: Martinus Nijhoff and Lancer’s Book, 2004), 146 and 165–66; Adil Najam, ‘Developing Countries and Global Environmental Governance: From Contestation to Participation to Engagement’, International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics (Springer), 5/3: 303–321 (2005).

  147. 147.

    Gurminder K Bhambra, ‘Postcolonial and Decolonial dialogues’ (2014) 17(2) Journal of Postcolonial Studies 115–121.

  148. 148.

    Ram Prakash Anand, Studies in International Law and History: An Asian Perspective (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, 2014).

  149. 149.

    María José Fernández, ‘Refugees, climate change and international law’ (2015) 49 FMR 42–43 http://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/FMRdownloads/en/climatechange-disasters/fernandez.pdf accessed 07 April 2018.

  150. 150.

    Ben Wisner et all ‘Climate Change and Human Security’, 2007 1–116, 11. http://www.afespress.de/pdf/ClimateChangeandHumanSecurity.pdf accessed 10 June 2018.

  151. 151.

    Susan Martin, ‘Climate Change, Migration, and Governance’, (2010) Global Governance 16(3) 397–414.

  152. 152.

    Benoit Mayer, ‘Environmental Migration: Prospects for a Regional Governance in the Asia-Pacific Region’ (2013) 16 APJEL 77–103, 91.

  153. 153.

    Mishra et al., (n 4) 111.

  154. 154.

    The Climate Change- Human Trafficking Nexus. 5 https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/mecc_infosheet_climate_change_nexus.pdf accessed 02 March 2018.

  155. 155.

    SAARC, ‘Action Plan’ (n 64).

  156. 156.

    SAARC, ‘Thimpu Statement’ (n 72).

  157. 157.

    Ibid.

  158. 158.

    SAARC Disaster Management Centre, ‘The South Asian Disaster Knowledge Network (SADKN)’ http://saarc-sdmc.org/south-asian-disaster-knowledge-network-sadkn accessed 02 March 2018.

  159. 159.

    Subir Gokarn, ‘Climate Change Imperatives for Regional Cooperation’ in Brookings India (ed), Reinvigorating SAARC India’s Opportunities and Challenges (Brookings India, 2014) 27–28 https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/saarc_briefing-book.pdf accessed 12 May 2018.

  160. 160.

    Ibid.

  161. 161.

    Nansen Initiative Regional Consultation (n 9) 17.

  162. 162.

    Daniel Bernet, Fleeing Drought, https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/climate-change-nepal-entire-villages-must-relocate-because-water-scarcity-getting-worse, accessed 13 June, 2018.

  163. 163.

    Giovanni Sciaccaluga, ‘Sudden-Onset Disasters, Human Displacement, and the Temporary Protection Directive: Space for a Promising Relationship?’ in Giovanni Carlo Bruno, Fulvio Maria Palombino and Valentina Rossi (eds), Migration and the Environment: Some Reflections on Current Legal Issues and Possible Ways Forward (CNR Edizioni, 2017) 75–100, 78 https://www.iriss.cnr.it/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Migration_and_the_Environment_2017.pdf accessed 12 June 2018.

  164. 164.

    Ibid, 82.

  165. 165.

    Tamara Wood, ‘Developing temporary protection in Africa’ (2015) 49 FMR 23–25 http://www.fmreview.org/climatechange-disasters/wood.html accessed 10 May 2018.

  166. 166.

    Ibid.

  167. 167.

    Mishra et al., (n 4) 3.

  168. 168.

    Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (adopted 10 September 1969) 1001 UNTS 45 (OAU Convention) http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36018.html accessed 15 June 2018.

  169. 169.

    Ibid.

  170. 170.

    Koko Warner et al., ‘Climate Change, Environmental Degradation, and Migration’ (2010) 55(3) Natural Hazards: Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards 689–715.

  171. 171.

    ‘Lomé Declaration on Climate Change and Protection of Civilians in West Africa’ (The Regional Conference on Protection Challenges to Climate Change in West Africa, Lome, Togo, 16 September 2009). See generally Giovanni Carlo Bruno, Fulvio Maria Palombino and Valentina Rossi (eds), Migration and the Environment: Some Reflections on Current Legal Issues and Possible Ways Forward (CNR Edizioni, 2017) https://www.iriss.cnr.it/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Migration_and_the_Environment_2017.pdf accessed 12 June 2018.

  172. 172.

    African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (adopted 23 October 2009) (Kampala Convention) https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/7796-treaty-0039_-_kampala_convention_african_union_convention_for_the_protection_and_assistance_of_internally_displaced_persons_in_africa_e.pdf accessed 25 May 2018.

  173. 173.

    Ibid art 1(k).

  174. 174.

    Allehone Mulugeta Abebe, ‘The Kampala Convention and environmentally induced displacement in Africa’ (IOM Intersessional Workshop on Climate Change, Environmental Degradation and Migration, Geneva, Switzerland, 29–30 March 2011) 1https://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/shared/shared/mainsite/microsites/IDM/workshops/climate-change-2011/SessionIII-Paper-Allehone-Mulugeta-Abebe.pdfaccessed 10 June 2018.

  175. 175.

    Ferris (n 151).

  176. 176.

    Mayer, ‘Environmental Migration’ (n 152) 92.

  177. 177.

    Ibid, 95.

  178. 178.

    Nansen Initiative Regional Consultation (n 9).

  179. 179.

    Williams (n 130) 518.

  180. 180.

    Ibid, 522.

  181. 181.

    Eminent Persons Group (EPG), ‘The South Asia Declaration on Refugees’ (Seventh Informal Regional Consultation of the EPG, New Delhi, 15–16 December 2002) http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/28291/17/17_appendices.pdf accessed 12 April 2018.

  182. 182.

    Refugee crisis in South East Asia (Rohingya Refugees), South Asia, Syria, Africa and Far East and other regions of the world.

  183. 183.

    United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 28 July 1951) 189 UNTS 137.

  184. 184.

    OAU Convention (n 168), art. 1(2).

  185. 185.

    United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (adopted 10 December 1984) 1465 UNTS 85 http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3a94.html accessed 14 May 2018.

  186. 186.

    Benoit Mayer, ‘The International Legal Challenges of Climate-Induced Migration: Proposal for an International Legal Framework’ (2011) 22(3) Colo. J. Int’l Envt’l L. & Poli’y, 357–416 https://www.colorado.edu/law/sites/default/files/Mayer%20(Corrected)-S.pdf accessed 12 May 2018.

  187. 187.

    Ibid, 394–396.

  188. 188.

    In 1996, a first funding mechanism was created in SAARC, ‘South Asian Development Fund (SADF), merging the SAARC Fund for Regional Projects (SFRP) and the SAARC Regional Fund. SADF objectives were to support industrial development, poverty alleviation, protection of the environment, institutional/human resource development and promotion of social and infrastructure development projects in the SAARC region. See, ‘About SDF’ (SAARC Development Fund) http://www.sdfsec.org/about-sdf accessed 11 May 2018.

  189. 189.

    Mayer, ‘The International Legal Challenges’ (n 186) 372.

  190. 190.

    Wanjala Dean George, ‘“Environmental Refugees”: Exposing Their Protection Gaps in International Law’ (Strathmore University Law School, 2017) 42 https://su-plus.strathmore.edu/bitstream/handle/11071/5209/Environmental%20refugees.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y accessed 10 March 2018.

  191. 191.

    Stephanie Dickson, Sophie Webber and Tim K. Takaro, ‘Preparing BC for Climate Migration’ (Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, 2014) 7 https://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/BC%20Office/2014/11/ccpa-bc_ClimateMigration_web.pdf accessed 10 March 2018.

  192. 192.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (adopted 29 May 1992) 1771 UNTS 107 (UNFCCC) art 4(4).

  193. 193.

    Barry Munslow and Tim O Dempsey, ‘From War on Terror to War on Weather? Rethinking Humanitarianism in a New Era of Chronic Emergencies’ (2010) 31(8) Third World Q. 1223–1235.

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    Stellina Jolly & Nafees Ahmad

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Jolly, S., Ahmad, N. (2019). The Role of the SAARC: Way Forward. In: Climate Refugees in South Asia. International Law and the Global South. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3137-4_7

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