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Climate Change Displacement and Refugees: ‘Normative Debate’

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Climate Refugees in South Asia

Part of the book series: International Law and the Global South ((ILGS))

Abstract

The mass human displacement caused by climate change and its ramifications have generated and gestated the normative debate about climate change-induced displacement. The climate change is destined to emplace new humanity of displaced populations in future, and it has been exacerbating the current human displacements as well. The stability of humanity is bound to be adversely affected and socioeconomic, politico-cultural and lego-institutional drivers, all at the same time. Therefore, climate change has been producing refugees in multiple manners, compelling people to relocate or migrate from their homes, contributing to the emergence of conflict situations and jeopardizing human security dimensions. Such scenarios are bound to shrink the natural resources, make reserves scarce and inaccessible for the present and posterity. Hence, there are questions regarding the climate change-induced displacement, identification of contours of the normative debate regarding human mobility and recognizing the climate change rights as human rights. Therefore, the instant chapter dwells upon the different approaches, concepts and debates in underscoring the climate refugees in the absence of international, regional and national laws and policies on them. It critically analyses the interfaces of minimalists and maximalists on climate change-induced displacement and its theoretical constructs while rummaging the core legal norms and issues of constitutional obligations within the applicable legal regime to climate refugees. The present chapter visits climate migration from human rights dimension and articulates the place of rights in transition while determining their nature as human rights-based normative debate.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Julie-Anne Richards and Simon Bradshaw, ‘Uprooted by Climate Change: Responding to the Growing Risk of Displacement’ (2017) Oxfam International Briefing Paper, 10 https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/bp-uprooted-climate-change-displacement-021117-en.pdf accessed 25 June 2018.

  2. 2.

    Olivia Dun and François Gemenne, ‘Defining “Environmental Migration”’, (2008) FMR 31 10–11 http://www.fmreview.org/climatechange/dun-gemenne.html accessed 25 June 2018.

  3. 3.

    Oli Brown, ‘Climate Change and Forced Migration: Observations, Projections and Implications’ (2007) UNDP’s Background Paper for the 2007 Human Development Report 2007/17, 16–17 http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/brown_oli.pdf accessed 25 June 2018.

  4. 4.

    Ban Ki Moon, ‘A Climate Culprit in Darfur’ Washington Post (16 June 2007) http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/15/AR2007061501857.html?noredirect=on accessed 25 June 2018.

  5. 5.

    Brown (n 3) 13–14.

  6. 6.

    Jon Barnett and Michael Webber, ‘Accommodating Migration to Promote Adaptation to Climate Change’ (2010) World Bank’s Policy Research Working Paper 5270, 22–26 http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/765111468326385012/pdf/WPS5270.pdf accessed 25 June 2018.

  7. 7.

    Adger, W. Neil et al. Human security. In: Field, Christopher B. et al. (Eds.) Climate Change 2014: Impacts Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (Cambridge University Press: 755–791). Helen Davidson and Adam Vaughan, ‘Climate Change Report: ‘The Worst is Yet to Come’—As it Happened’ The Guardian (31 March 2014) https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/mar/31/climate-change-report-ipcc-governments-unprepared-live-coverage accessed 28 May 2018.

  8. 8.

    Robert A. McLeman and Lori M. Hunter, ‘Migration and Adaptation to Climate Change’ (2009) Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews-Climate Change, Population Program POP2009-14, 1–3 http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.576.8279&rep=rep1&type=pdf accessed 25 June 2018.

  9. 9.

    Working Group II, ‘Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability, Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects’ Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-PartAFINAL.pdf accessed 25 June 2018.

  10. 10.

    The idea of ‘prognostic migration’ denotes that human migration is taking place in advance on the basis of an assessment of extreme climate change impacts that are preferred, projected and presented as adaptation and mitigation strategies instead of waiting for sudden forced displacement due to the subsequent climate change impacts.

  11. 11.

    Walter Kalin, ‘Conceptualising Climate-Induced Displacement’ in Jane McAdam (ed), Climate Change and Displacement: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2010) 81–103.

  12. 12.

    Norman Myers, ‘Environmental Refugees: An Emergent Security Issue’ (13th Economic Forum, Prague, 23–27 May 2005) www.osce.org/documents/eea/2005/05/14488_en.pdf accessed 31 May 2018.

  13. 13.

    Frank Biermann and Ingrid Boas, ‘Preparing for a Warmer World: Towards a Global Governance System to Protect Climate Refugees’ (2010) 10(1) Glob. Environ. Politics 60–88 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/FrankBiermann/publication/227627225PreparingforaWarmerWorldTowardsaGlobalGovernanceSystemtoProtectClimateRefugees/links/5422bc260cf238c6ea6b866f/Preparing-for-a-Warmer-World-Towards-a-Global-Governance-System-to-Protect-Climate-Refugees.pdf accessed on 25 May 2018.

  14. 14.

    Thomas Faist and Jeanette Schade, ‘The Climate-Migration Nexus: A Reorientation’ in Disentangling Migration and Climate Change (Springer Netherlands, 2013) 3–25.

  15. 15.

    Frank Laczko and Christine Aghazarm, Migration, Environment and Climate Change: Assessing the Evidence (International Organisation for Migration, 2009) 17.

  16. 16.

    Susan F. Martin, Environmental Change and Human Mobility: Trends, Law and Policy (2017) 42 Comparative Population Studies 187–218, Graeme Hugo, ‘Environmental Concerns and International Migration’ 1996 30(1) Int’L Migration Rev 105–131.

  17. 17.

    Richard Black, ‘Environmental Refugees: Myth or Reality?’ (2001) UNHCR Working Paper 34 http://www.unhcr.org/research/working/3ae6a0d00/environmental-refugees-myth-reality-richard-black.html accessed on 25 June 2018.

  18. 18.

    Andrew Morton, Philippe Boncour and Frank Laczko, ‘Human Security Policy Challenges’, (2008) 31 FMR 5–6 http://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/FMRdownloads/en/FMRpdfs/FMR31/05-07.pdf accessed 25 June 2018.

  19. 19.

    Norman Myers ‘Environmental Refugees: A Growing Phenomenon of the 21st Century’ (2002) Philosophical Transactions Royal Society: Biological Sciences 609–13 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692964/pdf/12028796.pdf accessed on 25 May 2018.

  20. 20.

    Giovanni Bettini, Sarah Louise Nash and Giovanna Gioli, ‘One Step Forward, Two Steps Back? The Fading Contours of (in)justice in Competing Discourses on Climate Migration’ (2016) Geogr. J, 1–11 http://lib.icimod.org/record/32247/files/HiAwareBettini_et_al16.pdf accessed on May 21, 2018.

  21. 21.

    Bruce Burson, ‘Protecting the Rights of People Displaced by Climate Change: Global Issues and Regional Perspectives’ in Bruce Burson (ed), Climate Change and Migration: South Pacific Perspectives (Institute of Policy Studies, 2010) 150–179.

  22. 22.

    Biermann and Boas (n 13) 61.

  23. 23.

    Ettiene Piguet, ‘From “Primitive Migration” to “Climate Refugees”: The Curious Fate of the Natural Environment in Migration Studies’ (2013) 103(1) Annals of the Association of American Geographers 148–162.

  24. 24.

    Graeme Hugo, ‘Climate Change-Induced Mobility and the Existing Migration Regime in Asia and the Pacific’ in Jane McAdam (ed.), Climate Change and Displacement: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2010) 9–37.

  25. 25.

    Essam El-Hinnawi ‘UNEP: Two Decades of Achievement and Challenge’ (UNEP Nairobi, 1992) 4 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED386388.pdf accessed on 25 June 2018.

  26. 26.

    Andrew Baldwin, Chris Methmann and Delf Rothe, ‘Securitizing ‘Climate Refugees’: The Futurology of Climate-Induced Migration’ 2(2) Critical Studies on Security 121–130.

  27. 27.

    Richard Ullman, ‘Redefining Security’, (1983) 8(1) Int’l Security 129–153 https://is.muni.cz/el/1423/jaro2017/BSS177/um/Ullman_Redefining_Security.pdf accessed on 25 June 2018.

  28. 28.

    Thomas Homer-Dixon, ‘On the Threshold: Environmental Changes as Causes of Acute Conflict’ (1991) 16(2) International Security 76–116 https://www.jstor.org/stable/2539061?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents accessed on 25 May 2018.

  29. 29.

    Ibid.

  30. 30.

    Robert D. Kaplan, ‘The Coming Anarchy’ (1994) 273(2) The Atlantic Monthly 44–76 https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1994/02/the-coming-anarchy/304670/ accessed on 28 May 2018.

  31. 31.

    Norman Myers and Jennifer Kent, ‘Environmental Exodus: An Emergent Crisis in the Global Arena’ (Climate Institute, Washington DC, 1995) http://climate.org/archive/PDF/Environmental%20Exodus.pdf accessed 15 May 2018.

  32. 32.

    Myers, ‘Environmental Refugees’ (n 19) 609.

  33. 33.

    Biermann and Boas (n 13) 62.

  34. 34.

    Asian Development Bank, ‘Addressing Climate Change and Migration in Asia and the Pacific’ (ADB, 2012) https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/29662/addressing-climate-change-migration.pdf accessed 18 April 2018.

  35. 35.

    Karen Elizabeth McNamara, ‘Conceptualizing Discourses on Environmental Refugees at the United Nations’ (2007) 29(1) Population and Environment 12–24.

  36. 36.

    Asian Development Bank, ‘Environment Operational Directions 2013–2020: Promoting Transitions to Green Growth in Asia and the Pacific’ (ADB, 2013) https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/33869/environment-operational-directions-2013-2020.pdf accessed on 23 May 2018.

  37. 37.

    Ibid.

  38. 38.

    John Campbell, ‘Climate Change and Population Movement in Pacific Island Countries’ in Bruce Burson (ed), Climate Change and Migration: South Pacific Perspectives (Institute of Policy Studies, 2010) 29–50.

  39. 39.

    International Organisation for Migration, ‘Moving to Safety: Migration Consequences of Complex Crises’ (2012) IOM’s International Dialogue on Migration 20, 10–12.

  40. 40.

    International Organisation for Migration, Glossary on Migration (IOM, 2011) 33.

  41. 41.

    Ben Saul and Jane McAdam, ‘An Insecure Climate for Human Security? Climate-Induced Displacement and International Law’ in Alice Edwards and Carla Ferstman (eds), Human Security and Non-Citizens (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009) 357–403.

  42. 42.

    Roger Zetter, ‘Legal and Normative Frameworks’, (2008) 31 FMR 62–63 http://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/FMRdownloads/en/climatechange/zetter.pdf accessed 25 June 2018.

  43. 43.

    International Organization for Migration, ‘Migration, Climate Change and the Environment’ (2009) IOM Policy Brief 4 https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/our_work/ICP/IDM/iom_policybrief_may09_en.pdf accessed on 25 June 2018.

  44. 44.

    Catherine Phuong, The International Protection of Internally Displaced Persons (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005); Nils Geissler, ‘The International Protection of Internally Displaced Persons’ (1999) 11 IJRL 451–478.

  45. 45.

    Steve Lonergan, ‘The Role of Environmental Degradation in Population Displacement’ (Spring 1998) 4 Environmental Change Security Project Report 5–15 https://www.oceanfdn.org/sites/default/files/The%20Role%20of%20Environmental%20Degradation%20in%20Population%20Displacement.pdf accessed 15 May 2018.

  46. 46.

    Kyung-wha Kang, ‘Climate Change, Migration and Human Rights’ (conference on Climate Change and Migration: Addressing Vulnerabilities and Harnessing Opportunities, Geneva, 19 February 2008) https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=9162&LangID=E accessed 25 June 2018.

  47. 47.

    Sarah Opitz Stapleton, Rebecca Nadin, Charlene Watson and Jan Kellett, ‘Climate change, migration and displacement: The Need for a Risk-Informed and Coherent Approach’ (United Nations Development Programme, Overseas Development Institute, 2017) 12–14 https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/resource-documents/11874.pdf accessed 14 June 2018.

  48. 48.

    Marta Bivand Erdal and Ceri Oeppen, ‘Forced to Leave? The Discursive and Analytical Significance of Describing Migration as Forced and Voluntary’ (2017) 44(6) J. Ethnic & Migr. Stud. 981–998, 982.

  49. 49.

    Mostafa Mahmud Naser, ‘Climate Change, Environmental Degradation, and Migration: A Complex Nexus’ (2012) 36(713) Wm. & Mary Envtl. L. & Pol’y Rev 742–744.

  50. 50.

    Ana Iglesias, Cynthia Rosenzweig, Gunther Fischer, Martin Parry, ‘Millions at Risk: Defining Critical Climate Change Threats and Targets’ (2001) 11 Global. Env’l Change 181–183.

  51. 51.

    Jessica Cooper, ‘Environmental Refugees: Meeting the Requirements of the Refugee Definition’ (1998) (6) N.Y.U. Envtl. L. J. 480–529.

  52. 52.

    Ian Manners ‘The Normative Ethics of the European Union’ (2008) 84(1) International Affairs 45–60.

  53. 53.

    Smruti Pattanaik, South Asia: Envisioning a Regional Future (Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, New Delhi, 2011) 76–206.

  54. 54.

    Daniel Bray, ‘Pragmatist Ethics and the Will to Believe in Cosmopolitanism’ (2013) 5(3) International Theory 446–476.

  55. 55.

    The Nansen Conference, Climate Change and Displacement in the 21st Century, Oslo, Norway, 5–7 June 2011, 17 http://www.unhcr.org/4ea969729.pdf accessed 25 June 2018.

  56. 56.

    George Martine, ‘Population Dynamics and Policies in the Context of Global Climate Change’ in José Miguel Guzmán George Martine, Gordon McGranahan, Daniel Schensul and Cecilia Tacoli (eds), Population Dynamics and Climate Change (International Institute for Environment and Development, 2009) 9–30, 26–27.

  57. 57.

    Brian Opeskin, ‘The Influence of International Law on the International Movement of Persons’ (2009) UNDP’s Human Development Reports Research Paper 2009/18 http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdrp_2009_18.pdf accessed 22 May 2018.

  58. 58.

    It is the understanding of the authors to evolve and conceive a definition of ‘climate refugee’ while placing the same in the public domain to extract more clarity and certainty thereupon for a universal application.

  59. 59.

    Brooke Havard, ‘Seeking Protection: Recognition of Environmentally Displaced Persons under International Human Rights Law’ (2007) 18 Vill. Envt’l L. J. 65–82.

  60. 60.

    Benoît Mayer, ‘Governing “Climate Migration”’ in Walter Leal Filho (ed), Handbook of Climate Change Adaptation (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2014) 1–14.

  61. 61.

    Sheri P. Rosenberg, ‘Responsibility to Protect: A Framework for Prevention’, Global Responsibility to (2009) 1 Protect 442–444.

  62. 62.

    Charter of the United Nations (adopted 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS XVI (UN Charter) art 2(7).

  63. 63.

    Silja Klepp, ‘Climate Change and Migration: Policy, Politics, and Governance, Future Climate Change Scenarios’, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Change (2017) 1–35 http://climatescience.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228620-e-42?print=pdf accessed 23 March 2018.

  64. 64.

    The minimalists perceive that environmental change is a causal mutable but emphasizes that it is impossible to analytically and empirically segregate environmental change as the cause of migration.

  65. 65.

    The maximalists perceive that environmental change is the direct cause of migration and advocates a holistic approach in addressing them without any classification.

  66. 66.

    Andrew Baldwin, Chris Mathmann and Delf Rothe, ‘Securitizing Climate Refugees: The Futurology of Climate-induced Migration’, (2014) 2(2) Critical Studies on Security 121–130.

  67. 67.

    Astri Suhrke, ‘Environmental Degradation and Population Flows’ (1994) 47(2) J. Int’l Affairs 473–496; Hugo (n 16) 105–131.

  68. 68.

    Koko Warner, ‘Global Environmental Change and Migration: Governance Challenges’ (2010) 20(3) Global Environmental Change 402–413.

  69. 69.

    Black (n 17) 12.

  70. 70.

    Stephen Castles, ‘Environmental change and forced migration: making sense of the debate: New Issues in Refugee Research’ (2002) Oxford Refugee Studies Centre Working Paper 70, 8 http://tinyurl.com/cjrr4cy accessed 11 May 2018.

  71. 71.

    Brian Black, Climate Change: An Encyclopedia of Science and History (ABC-CLIO, California, 2013).

  72. 72.

    Cecilia Tacoli, ‘Crisis or Adaptation? Migration and Climate Change in a Context of High Mobility’ (2009) 21(2) Environment Urbanization 513–525, 516 http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956247809342182 accessed 14 April 2018.

  73. 73.

    Castles (n 70) 6; JoAnn McGregor, ‘Refugees and the Environment’ in Richard Black & Vaughan Robinson (eds), Geography and Refugees: Patterns and Process of Change (Wiley, 1993) 158.

  74. 74.

    Colette Mortreux and Jon Barnett, ‘Climate Change, Migration, and Adaptation in Funafuti, Tuvalu’ (2009) 19 Global. Envt. Change 105–112; António Guterres, ‘Climate Change, Natural Disasters and Human Displacement: A UNHCR Perspective’ (2008) UNHCR’s Policy Paper http://www.unhcr.org/4901e81a4.pdf accessed 05 May 2018; Carol Farbotko and Heather Lazrus, ‘The First Climate Refugees? Contesting Global Narratives of Climate Change in Tuvalu’ (2012) 22(2) Global Environmental Change 382–390; Karen Elizabeth McNamara and Cristopher Gibson, ‘We do not Want to Leave Our Land: Pacific Ambassadors at the United Nations Resist the Category of “Climate Refugees”’ (2009) 40(3) Geoforum 475–483.

  75. 75.

    Richard Bilsborrow, ‘Rural Poverty, Migration, and the Environment in Developing Countries: Three Case Studies’ (1992) World Bank’s Background Paper for World Development Report, 55–56 http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/777691468767386516/pdf/multi0page.pdf accessed 15 February 2018.

  76. 76.

    McNamara, Gibson (n 74) 475–483.

  77. 77.

    El-Hinnawi (n 25).

  78. 78.

    James Morrissey, ‘Rethinking the Debate on Environmental Refugees’ (2012) 19 Journal of Political Ecology 39.

  79. 79.

    Andrew Geddes, The Politics of Migration and Immigration in Europe (Sage Publications, London, 2003).

  80. 80.

    James Morrissey, ‘Environmental change and forced migration’ (Workshop on Environmental Change and Forced Migration, Oxford Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford, London, 8–9 January 2009) https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/publications/environmental-change-and-forced-migration-a-state-of-the-art-review accessed 04 April 2018.

  81. 81.

    Norman Myers ‘Environmental refugees in a globally warmed world’ (1993) 43(11) Bio Sciences 752–761.

  82. 82.

    Bonnie Docherty, Tyler Giannini, ‘Confronting a Rising Tide: A Proposal for a Convention on Climate Change Refugees’ (2009) 33 Harv. Envt’l L. Rev 349–403.

  83. 83.

    Black, ‘Environmental Refugees’ (n 17) 1.

  84. 84.

    Diane Bates, ‘Environmental Refugees? Classifying human migrations caused by environmental change’, (2002) 23(5) Population and Environment 465–477.

  85. 85.

    Andrew Baldwin, Chris Methmann and Delf Rothe, ‘Securitizing ‘Climate Refugees’: The futurology of Climate-Induced Migration’, (2014) 2(2) Critical Studies on Security 121–130.

  86. 86.

    Ibid; Government Office for Science, ‘Migration and Global Environmental Change: Future Challenges and Opportunities’ (2011) Foresight’s Final Project Report https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/287717/11-1116-migration-and-global-environmental-change.pdf accessed 15 March 2018; Yvonne Su, ‘The Concept of Climate Migration’ (2017) 30(4) J. Refugee. Stud. 624–662.

  87. 87.

    Cathrine Brun, Piers Blaikie, Alternative Development: Unravelling Marginalization, Voicing Change (Routledge, Abingdon, 2016) 208.

  88. 88.

    Black, ‘Environmental Refugees’ (n 17) 6; Gaim Kibreab, ‘Environmental Causes and Impact of Refugee Movements: A Critique of the Current Debate’ (1997) 21(1) Disasters 20–38.

  89. 89.

    Cosmin Corendea, ‘Protection under Climate Law: A Hybrid Approach’ (Refugee Law Initiative, 29 May 2018) https://rli.blogs.sas.ac.uk/2018/05/29/protection-under-climate-law-a-hybrid-approach/ accessed on 31 May 2018.

  90. 90.

    Cosmin Corendea, ‘Hybrid Legal Approaches Towards Climate Change: Concepts, Mechanisms and Implementation’ (2016) 21(1) Ann. Surv. Int’l & Comp. L. 5, 29–42, 35.

  91. 91.

    François Gemenne and Julia Blocher, ‘How can Migration Serve Adaptation to Climate Change? Challenges to Feshing out a Policy Ideal’ (2017) 183(4) Geogr. J. 336–347.

  92. 92.

    Elisabeth Abiri, ‘Migration and Security from a North-South Perspective: Sweden and Malawi’ in David Graham and Nana Poku (eds), Migration, Globalisation and Human Security (Routledge, London and New York, 2000) 70–74.

  93. 93.

    David T. Graham, ‘The People Paradox: Human Movements and Human Security in a Globalizing World, in David Graham and Nana Poku (eds), Migration, Globalisation and Human Security (Routledge, London and New York, 2000) 185–190, 186.

  94. 94.

    Matthew Lister, ‘Climate Change Refugees’ (2014) 17(5), CRISPPP 618–634.

  95. 95.

    Clionadh Raleigh, Lisa Jordan and Idean Salehyan, ‘Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Migration and Conflict’ (World Bank, Washington DC) 16–18.

  96. 96.

    Roger Zetter, ‘Protecting Forced Migrants: A State of the Art Report of Concepts, Challenges and Ways Forward, Migration Reports’ (2014) Federal Commission on Migration, 18–27 https://www.ekm.admin.ch/content/dam/data/ekm/dokumentation/materialien/mat_schutz_e.pdf accessed 29 January 2018.

  97. 97.

    Quoted in Tine Tolstrup, ‘Understanding climate migration: An analysis of political discourses and scientific disputes on linkages between climate change and migration in the UNFCCC negotiations’ (Master's Thesis, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, 20–22, 6 June 2016).

  98. 98.

    Ibid.

  99. 99.

    Ibid.

  100. 100.

    Ibid.

  101. 101.

    Ibid.

  102. 102.

    John Vogler, Climate Change in World Politics (Palgrave Macmillan, UK, 2016) 22–36.

  103. 103.

    Chloé Anne Vlassopoulos, ‘Defining Environmental Migration in the Climate Change Era: Problem, Consequence or Solution?’ in Thomas Faist and Jeanetter Schade (eds), Disentangling Migration and Climate Change (Springer Netherlands, 2013) 145–63.

  104. 104.

    Klepp (n 63)12.

  105. 105.

    Alex Arnall, Uma Kothari and Ilan Kelman, ‘Introduction to Politics of Climate Change: Discourses of Policy and Practice in Developing Countries’ (2013) 18(43) Geogr. J., 98–101.

  106. 106.

    Robyn Eckersley, ‘The Common But Differentiated Responsibilities of States to Assist and Receive “Climate Refugees”’ (2015) 14(4) Eur. J. Political Theory 1–21 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277938867_The_common_but_differentiated_responsibilities_of_states_to_assist_and_receive_‘climate_refugees’ accessed 4 June 2018.

  107. 107.

    Margaux J. Hall and David C. Weiss, ‘Avoiding Adaptation Apartheid: Climate Change Adaptation and Human Rights Law’ (2012) 37(2) Yale J. Int’l L. 319–325, 345–346.

  108. 108.

    See Francesco Francioni, ‘International Human Rights in an Environmental Horizon’ (2010) 21(1) Eur. J. Int’l L 41–55; Louis Sohn, ‘The Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment’ (1973) 14 Harv. Int’l L. J. 413–451.

  109. 109.

    United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (adopted 15 December 1972) UNGA A/RES/2994 (Stockholm Declaration) Principle 1.

  110. 110.

    “Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being”.

  111. 111.

    Francioni (n 108) 45; Basil Ugochukwu, ‘Climate Change and Human Rights: How? Where? When?’ (2015) 82 CIGI Papers 1–10 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303564554_Climate_Change_and_Human_Rights_How_Where_When, 3 accessed 2 May 2018.

  112. 112.

    See Alan E. Boyle & Michael R. Anderson (eds), Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection, (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996); Romina Picolotti and Jorge Daniel Taillant (eds), Linking Human Rights and the Environment (University of Arizona Press, 2003); Dominic McGoldrick, ‘Sustainable Development and Human Rights: An Integrated Conception’, (1996) 45 Int’l & Comp.L.O., 796–818.

  113. 113.

    Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989) 1577 UNTS 3 (CRC) art 24; Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention (adopted 27 June 1989) 28 ILM 1382 art 4, 7, 15; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (adopted 27 June 1981) (1982) 21 ILM 58 (African Charter) art 24; Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 17 November 1988) 28 ILM 156 (Protocol of San Salvador) art 11; see generally John Lee, ‘The Underlying Legal Theory to Support a Well-Defined Human Right to a Healthy Environment as a Principle of Customary International Law’ (2000) 25 Colum. J. Envtl. L. 283.

  114. 114.

    Sheila Watt Cloutier, ‘Climate Change and Human Rights’ (Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, 22 April 2004) https://www.carnegiecouncil.org/publications/archive/dialogue/2_11/section_1/4445 accessed 20 June 2018.

  115. 115.

    Sheila Watt-Cloutier, ‘Petition Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting from Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States’ (Organisation of American States, 2005) http://www.ciel.org/Publications/ICC_Petition_7Dec05.pdf accessed 13 December 2017.

  116. 116.

    Joanna Harrington, ‘Climate Change, Human Rights and the Right to be Cold’ (2007) 18 Fordham Envtl. L. Rev 513–535, 532.

  117. 117.

    Hari M. Osofsky, ‘The Inuit Petition as a Bridge? Beyond the Dialectics of Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples’ Rights’ (2007) 31(2) Am. Indian L. Rev. 675–699; see generally Randall S. Abate, ‘Climate Change, the United States and the Impacts of Arctic Melting: A Case Study in the Need for Enforceable International Environmental Human Rights’ (2007) 26 Stan. Envt. L. J. 4–76; Timo Koivurova, ‘International Legal Avenues to Address the Plight of Victims of Climate Change: Problems and Prospects’ (2007) 22 J. Envtl. L. & Litig. 267–299; Sara C. Aminzadeh, ‘A Moral Imperative: The Human Rights Implications of Climate Change’ (2007) 30(2) Hastings Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. 231–265.

  118. 118.

    United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, ‘report on the seventh session’ (2008) Economic and Social Council E/2008/43, e/c.19/2008/13, 3–4 https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/unpfii-sessions-2/seventh-session-of-the-unpfii.html accessed 19 March 2018.

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    Malé Declaration on the Human Dimension of Global Climate Change (adopted 14 November 2007) (Male Declaration) http://www.ciel.org/Publications/Male_Declaration_Nov07.pdf accessed 15 December 2017.

  120. 120.

    United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘Human Rights and Climate Change’ (adopted 28 March 2018) Resolution 7/23 http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/E/HRC/resolutions/A_HRC_RES_7_23.pdf accessed 15 December 2017.

  121. 121.

    United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘Report on the Relationship Between Climate Change and Human Rights’ (adopted 15 January 2009) UN Doc. A/HRC/10/61 http://www.refworld.org/docid/498811532.html accessed 20 May 2018.

  122. 122.

    Organization of American States, ‘Human Rights and Climate Change in the Americas’ (adopted 3 June 2008) AG/RES. 2429 (XXXVIII-O/08) https://www.oas.org/dil/AGRES_2429.doc accessed on 16 May 2018.

  123. 123.

    United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Human Rights and Climate Change’ (adopted 25 March 2009) Resolution 10/4 http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/E/HRC/resolutions/A_HRC_RES_10_4.pdf accessed 04 November 2017.

  124. 124.

    Siobhan McInerney-Lankford, Mac Darrow and Lavanya Rajamani, ‘Human Rights and Climate Change: A Review of the International Legal Dimensions’ (2011) 8 World Bank Study https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/978-0-8213-8720-7 accessed 05 May 2018; see generally Tiffany T.V. Duong, ‘When Islands Drown: The Plight of “Climate Change Refugees” and Recourse to International Human Rights Law’ (2010) 31(4) U/Pa. J. Int’l L. 1239–1266.

  125. 125.

    United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Human Rights and Climate Change’ (adopted 17 October 2011) Resolution 18/22, UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/18/22 https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ClimateChange/A.HRC.RES.18.22.pdf accessed 23 May 2018.

  126. 126.

    United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Human Rights and Climate Change’ (adopted 25 June 2014) Resolution 26/L33, UN Doc. A/HRC/26/L.33/Rev.1 https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/LTD/G14/065/81/PDF/G1406581.pdf?OpenElement accessed 25 April 2018.

  127. 127.

    United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Human Rights and Climate Change’ (adopted 22 July 2015) Resolution 29/15, UN Doc. A/HRC/29/L. 21 https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G15/163/60/PDF/G1516360.pdf?OpenElement accessed 23 April 2018.

  128. 128.

    United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Human Rights and the Environment’ (adopted 12 April 2011) Resolution 16/11, UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/16/11 http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/16session/A.HRC.RES.16.11_en.pdf accessed 21 April 2018; United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Human Rights and the Environment’ (adopted 19 April 2012) Resolution 19/10, UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/19/10 https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/G12/131/59/PDF/G1213159.pdf?OpenElement accessed 21 April 2018.

  129. 129.

    United Nations Development General Assembly, ‘The Future We Want: Biodiversity and Ecosystems—Driving Sustainable Development: United Nations Development Programme Biodiversity and Ecosystems Global Framework 2012–2020’ (adopted 27 July 2012) Resolution 66/288, UN Doc. A RES/66/288.

  130. 130.

    United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Resolution 29/15’ (n 127).

  131. 131.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Conference of Parties 22 (Marrakech, Morocco, 7–18 November 2016).

  132. 132.

    Promoting the Geneva Pledge for Human Rights in Climate Action (Human Rights and Climate Change Working Group) http://climaterights.org/our-work/unfccc/geneva-pledge/ accessed 19 April 2018.

  133. 133.

    Laczko and Aghazarm (n 15) 387–391.

  134. 134.

    UN Charter (n 62) art 1.

  135. 135.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, ‘Decision 1/CP.16 The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention’ (adopted 15 March 2011) FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1 https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2010/cop16/eng/07a01.pdf accessed 20 May 2018.

  136. 136.

    United Nations General Assembly, ‘Report by the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants, Francois Crepeau: Climate Change and Migration’ (adopted 13 August 2012) A/67/299 https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N12/460/71/PDF/N1246071.pdf?OpenElement accessed 12 April 2018.

  137. 137.

    United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 28 July 1951) 189 UNTS 137 art 1.

  138. 138.

    James C Hathaway, ‘Food Deprivation: A Basis for Refugee Status?’, (2014) 81(2) Social Research 327–339, 328 https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2075&context=articles accessed 12 March 2018.

  139. 139.

    UNHCR, Climate Change and Disasters, (14 December 2009) http://www.unhcr.org/climate-changeand-disasters.html accessed 26 December 2017.

  140. 140.

    Stefan Lovgren, ‘Climate Change Creating Millions of “Eco Refugees” UN Warns’ (National Geographic News, 18 November 2005) http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1118_051118_disaster_refugee_2.html accessed 23 December 2017.

  141. 141.

    United Nations High Commission for Refugees, ‘Statement by Sadako Ogata, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees’ (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, 10 June 1992).

  142. 142.

    Mohammed Matahir Ali v Minister of Immigration, [1994] FCA 887 (Aus.).

  143. 143.

    The nation-states contend that acknowledging one person as an ‘environmental refugee’, would open a Pandora box for millions who are placed in similar situations of deprivation and recognizing whom would not be financially viable for the State. See, Jessica Rodger, ‘Defining the Parameters of the Non-Refoulement Principle’ LLM Research Paper, Victoria University Wellington, 2001.

  144. 144.

    The nation-states have reasoned that the sole discretion to decide whether a foreigner should be given entry to their territories rests upon them. See also: Nishimura Ekiu v US, 142 US 651; Catherine Phuong, ‘Identifying States’ Responsibilities towards Refugees and Asylum Seekers’ (2005) ESIL Research Forum 1–12 http://www.esil-sedi.eu/sites/default/files/Phuong.PDF accessed 21 January 2018.

  145. 145.

    Olivier Godard, Global Climate Justice: Proposals, Arguments and Justification (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2017) 12; Damilola S. Olawuyi, ‘Advancing Climate Justice in International Law: An Evaluation of the United Nations Human Rights-Based Approach’ (2015) 11(1) FAMU 103–125, 103 http://commons.law.famu.edu/famulawreview/vol11/iss1/3 accessed 11 May 2018.

  146. 146.

    Simon Caney, ‘Two kinds of Climate Justice: Avoiding Harm and Sharing Burdens’ (2014) 22(2) Journal of Political Philosophy 125–149, 147; Julia Häggström, ‘Climate Justice as a Foundation for Climate Migration Policy’ (Lund University, 2015) 15 http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=8244061&fileOId=8244071 accessed 12 January 2018.

  147. 147.

    Ibid; Biermann and Boas (n 13); Eike Albrecht and Malte Paul Plewa, ‘International Recognition of Environmental Refugees’ (2014) 2 Envt'l Pol'y & L. 78–85.

  148. 148.

    Giovanni Bettini, ‘Climate Migration as an Adaption Strategy: De-Securitizing Climate-Induced Migration or Making the Unruly Governable?’ (2014) 2(2) Critical Studies on Security 180–195.

  149. 149.

    Friederike Gesing, Johannes Herbeck, SiljaKlepp, ‘Denaturalizing Climate Change: Migration, Mobilities And Space’ (2014) University of Bremen’s Artec Paper No. 200, 7 https://www.uni-bremen.de/fileadmin/user_upload/sites/artec/Publikationen/artec_Paper/200_paper.pdf accessed 11 December 2018.

  150. 150.

    Eike, Plewa (n 147) 79; see generally Tanja Dreher and Michelle Voyer, ‘Climate Refugees or Migrants? Contesting Media Frames on Climate Change Justice in the Pacific’ (2015) 9(1) Environmental Communication: A Journal of Nature and Culture 58–76.

  151. 151.

    Susannah Fisher, ‘The Emerging Geographies of Climate Justice’ (2012) Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Working Paper No. 94 http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/WP83-emerging-geographies-climate-justice.pdf accessed 11 January 2018; Mary Robinson Foundation Climate Justice, ‘Human Rights, Migration, and Displacement related to the Adverse Impacts of Climate Change’ (2016) Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights’ Discussion Paper, 2 https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ClimateChange/EM2016/HumanRightsMigrationDisplacement.pdf accessed 05 January 2018.

  152. 152.

    Burson, ‘Protecting the Rights of People Displaced by Climate Change’ (n 21) 170–171.

  153. 153.

    International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966) 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR) art 6; Mary Robinson Foundation Climate Justice, ‘Protecting the Rights of Climate Displaced People’ (2016) Position Paper https://www.mrfcj.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Protecting-the-Rights-of-Climate-Displaced-People-Position-Paper.pdf accessed 12 April 2018; Siobhan McInerney-Lankford, ‘Climate Change and Human Rights: An Introduction to Legal Issues’ (2009) 33 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 431-436.

  154. 154.

    International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966) 993 UNTS 3 (ICESCR) art 15(2).

  155. 155.

    Ibid art 7(a)(ii).

  156. 156.

    ICESCR (n 154) art 11.

  157. 157.

    ICCPR (n 153) art 1.

  158. 158.

    Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948) UNGA Res. 217 A(III) (UDHR) art 3.

  159. 159.

    ICCPR (n 153) art 6.

  160. 160.

    CRC (n 113).

  161. 161.

    Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (adopted 4 November 1950) ETS 5 (ECHR) art 2.

  162. 162.

    American Convention on Human Rights (adopted 22 November 1969) 1144 UNTS 123 (ACHR) art 4.

  163. 163.

    African Charter (n 113) art 4.

  164. 164.

    United Nations Human Rights Committee (UNHRC), ‘Nature of the General Legal Obligation on States Parties to the Covenant’ (General Comment No. 31, 2004) UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13 http://www.refworld.org/docid/478b26ae2.html accessed 10 April 2018; UNCHRC, ‘Equality of Rights Between Men and Women: article 3’ (General Comment No. 28, 2000) UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/ Rev.1/Add.10 http://www.refworld.org/docid/45139c9b4.html accessed 10 April 2018; Manfred Nowak, UN Covenant on Civil And Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (NP Engel, 2005).

  165. 165.

    United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), ‘Report on the Relationship Between Climate Change and Human Rights’ (n 121)8.

  166. 166.

    Oli Brown and Alec Crawford, ‘Rising Temperatures, Rising Tensions: Climate Change and the Risk of Violent Conflict in the Middle East’ (International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2009) 1 https://www.iisd.org/pdf/2009/rising_temps_middle_east.pdf accessed 17 December 2017; United Nations Environment Programme, ‘From Conflict to Peace-Building: The Role of Natural Resources and the Environment’ (UNEP, 2009) 5 https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/pcdmb_policy_01.pdf accessed 17 December 2017; Brahma Chellaney, ‘Climate Change and Security in Southern Asia: Understanding the National Security Implications’ (2007) 152(2) The RUSI Journal 62–69, 63.

  167. 167.

    Watt-Cloutier, ‘Petition Seeking Relief’ (n 115).

  168. 168.

    Male Declaration (n 119).

  169. 169.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, ‘Views Regarding the Work Programme of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention’ (Bangkok, 31 March–4 April 2008) UNFCCC/AWGLCA/2008/MISC.1 https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2008/awglca1/eng/misc01.pdf accessed 19 December 2018.

  170. 170.

    CESCR, ‘The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health’ (General Comment No. 14, 2000) E/C.12/2000/4 http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4538838d0.pdf accessed 17 December 2018.

  171. 171.

    El Hadji Guisse, ‘report of the Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on the Right to Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation on the relationship between the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights and the promotion of the realization of the right to drinking water supply and sanitation’ (CESCR’s General Comment No. 15, 2002) UN Doc E/CN.4/ Sub.2/2002/10 http://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838d11.html accessed 16 February 2018.

  172. 172.

    Social and Economic Rights Action Center/Center for Economic and Social Rights v Nigeria, 96 AJIL 937 (Decision Regarding Communication 155/96 in Ogoniland case, African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, 2001).

  173. 173.

    United Nations General Assembly, ‘Analytical Study on the Relationship between Climate Change and the Human Right of Everyone to the Enjoyment of the Highest Attainable Standard of Physical and Mental Health’ (UNHRC’s 32nd Session, 2016) A/HRC/32/23 https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G16/092/02/PDF/G1609202.pdf?OpenElement accessed 24 April 2018.

  174. 174.

    Ibid.

  175. 175.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (adopted 29 May 1992) 1771 UNTS 107 (UNFCCC) art 1.

  176. 176.

    Ibid art 3.

  177. 177.

    UNFCCC (n 175) art 4.

  178. 178.

    UNFCCC, ‘Adoption of the Paris Agreement’ (21st Conference of Parties, Paris, 30 November–11 December 2013) Report No. FCCC/CP/2015/L.9/Rev.1 http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09r01.pdf accessed 17 December 2017.

  179. 179.

    United Nations General Assembly, ‘The Right of Peoples and Nations to Self-Determination’ (1952) Resolution 637A (VII)  http://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f0791c.html accessed 14 November 2018; Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa), Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (Advisory Opinion) 1971 http://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/53/053-19710621-ADV-01-00-EN.pdf accessed 21 June 2018 [313]–[312]; Western Sahara (Advisory Opinion) 1975 http://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/61/061-19751016-ADV-01-00-EN.pdf accessed 21 June 2018 [12]–[74].

  180. 180.

    United Nations Human Rights Committee (UNHRC), ‘The right to self-determination of peoples (Art. 1)’ (General Comment No. 12, 1984) UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6, http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/jus/humanrights/HUMR5508/v12/undervisningsmateriale/General%20Comment%20No12-self-determination.pdf accessed 10 April 2018.

  181. 181.

    East Timor (Portugal v Australia) (Merits) [1995] ICJ Rep 25.

  182. 182.

    UNHRC, ‘General Comment No.12’ (n 180) 6; ICCPR (n 153) art 1(3); ICESR (n 154) art 1(3); Advisory Opinion, ‘Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall’ (n 179) 88.

  183. 183.

    United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), ‘report on the Relationship Between Climate Change and Human Rights’ (n 121) 14; Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), ‘Declaration on Climate Change’ (New York, 21 September 2009) https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1566AOSISSummitDeclarationSept21FINAL.pdf accessed 21 May 2018; see generally Jane McAdam, ‘Environmental Migration’ in Alexander Betts (ed), Global Migration Governance (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011) 153–188.

  184. 184.

    The Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States (adopted 26 December 1933) 165 LNTS 19 (Montevideo Convention).

  185. 185.

    Stephen Humphreys, ‘Climate Change and Human Rights: A Rough Guide’ (International Council on Human Rights Policy, Versoix, 2008) 3. https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ClimateChange/Submissions/136_report.pdf; Rebecca Jacobs, ‘Treading Deep Waters: Substantive Law Issues in Tuvalu's Threat to Sue the United States in the International Court of Justice’ (2005) 14(1) Pac. Rim L. & Poli’y J. 103–128 https://digital.law.washington.edu/dspacelaw/bitstream/handle/1773.1/662/14PacRimLPolyJ103.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y accessed 27 March 2018.

  186. 186.

    Susannah Willcox, ‘A Rising Tide: The Implications of Climate Change Inundation for Human Rights and State Sovereignty’ (2012) 9(1) EHRR 1–19, 8 http://projects.essex.ac.uk/ehrr/V9N1/Willcox.pdf accessed 14 March 2018; United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), ‘report on the Relationship Between Climate Change and Human Rights’ (n 121) 40.

  187. 187.

    See Sophie Pascoe, ‘Sailing The Waves On Our Own: Climate Change Migration, Self-Determination and The Carteret Islands’ (2015) 15(2) QUT L. Rev 72–85 https://lr.law.qut.edu.au/article/view/610/574 accessed 02 January 2018.

  188. 188.

    McInerney-Lankford, Darrow and Rajamani (n 124) 30; McInerney-Lankford, ‘Climate Change and Human Rights’ (n 153) 431; John H. Knox, ‘Linking Human Rights and Climate Change at the United Nations’ (2009) 33 Harv. Envt’l L. Rev 477–498, 487 http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/elr/vol33_2/Knox.pdf accessed 15 November 2017.

  189. 189.

    ICCPR (n 153) preamble.

  190. 190.

    Jack Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 2003)36.

  191. 191.

    Jane McAdam, Climate Change Forced Migration, and International Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2012) 90–91.

  192. 192.

    Scott Leckie, ‘The Human Rights Implications of Climate Change Where Next?’ (2008) 31 FMR 18–19 https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/DB0C5ED80E7A7EE1C12574D00033E015-FMR-oct2008.pdf accessed 25 June 2018.

  193. 193.

    Humphreys (n 185) 7–8.

  194. 194.

    CESCR, ‘The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2, Para. 1, of the Covenant)’ (General Comment No. 3, 2000) E/1991/23 http://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838e10.html accessed 17 December 2018.

  195. 195.

    United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (n 137) art. 33 See generally Guy S. Goodwin-Gill and Jane Mc Adam, The Refugee in International Law (Second edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996).

  196. 196.

    Tamás Molnár, ‘The Principle of Non-Refoulement Under International Law: Its Inception and Evolution in a Nutshell’ (2016) 1(1) Corvinus J. Int’L Affairs 51–61, 53; see ICCPR (n 153) art 7; ECHR (n 161) art 3. These articles contain the principle of non-refoulement.

  197. 197.

    Ibid, Tamás Molnár, Paulina Tandiono, ‘Legal Conundrum in the Plight of Pacific Island Countries: Climate Change, Displacement and Human Rights’ (Master’s Thesis, London School of Economics, 18 August 2016) 17–18 http://www.lse.ac.uk/humanRights/documents/Tandiono-dissertation.pdf accessed 21 December 2018.

  198. 198.

    D v UK (1997) 24 EHRR 423.

  199. 199.

    GS (India) and Ors v SSHD [2015] EWCA Civ 40.

  200. 200.

    Tandiono (n 198) 15.

  201. 201.

    Cornelis Wolfram Wouters, International Legal Standards for the Protection from Refoulement (Intersentia Publishers, Antwerp, 2009) 154.

  202. 202.

    Swapnil Tripathi, ‘Climate Refugees: Acknowledging the Existence of an Imminent Threat’ (2017) 4(1) NLUJ Law Review 21–34, 25 http://nlujodhpur.ac.in/uploads/16821709020334.pdf accessed 15 January 2018; Shakeel Kazmi, ‘Climate Change: Human Rights in the Times of Climate Displacement’ (SJD Dissertation, Pace Law School, Pace University, United States of America, 2012) 97 https://digitalcommons.pace.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=lawdissertations accessed 19 February 2018.

  203. 203.

    Nottebohm Case (Liechtenstein v Guatemala) [1955] ICJ Rep 18.

  204. 204.

    Sheri P. Rosenberg, ‘Responsibility to Protect: A Framework for Prevention’ (2009) 4(1) Global Responsibility to Protect 442–477, 443 http://responsibilitytoprotect.org/The%20Responsibility%20to%20Protect%20A%20Framework%20For%20Prevention%20(Rosenberg).pdf accessed 04 May 2018.

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  206. 206.

    UNDP, Fighting Climate Change: Human Solidarity In A Divided World, Human Development Report 2007/2008 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007)7.

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    Chaloka Beyani, ‘A Human Rights-Based Approach to Protection of Environmentally Displaced Persons’ (Brookings, 6 June 2011) https://www.brookings.edu/on-the-record/a-human-rights-based-approach-to-protection-of-environmentally-displaced-persons/ accessed 27 December 2017.

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    Stellina Jolly & Nafees Ahmad

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Jolly, S., Ahmad, N. (2019). Climate Change Displacement and Refugees: ‘Normative Debate’. In: Climate Refugees in South Asia. International Law and the Global South. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3137-4_3

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