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The Palgrave Handbook of Local Governance in Contemporary China pp 735–755Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

Breathe Easy? Local Nuances of Authoritarian Environmentalism in China’s Battle Against Air Pollution

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Abstract

The heavy smog suffocating China’s cities is increasingly being perceived as a threat by both the population and the authorities. Consequently, political action aiming at regulating ambient air pollution has become increasingly comprehensive and rigid in recent year. Even measures limiting consumption and production seem to become acceptable as China is facing an airpocalypse. Does this suggest a genesis of real “authoritarian environmentalism” (AE) in the PRC? Taking this as a heuristic point of departure, we present findings from research on the local implementation of air pollution control measures in Hangzhou City. We offer a critical examination of the concept of AE and, in particular, of policy implementation strategies vis-à-vis the general public. Altogether, we argue for different emphases in a potential Chinese model of AE. In a context where outcomes are sought at any cost, we observe more complexity and nuances than are usually captured by the AE concept.

This chapter is a reprint of an article previously published in The China Quarterly (no. 234, June 2018, pp. 299–319), slightly revised to fit the format of this volume.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Gilley 2012, 288.

  2. 2.

    Gilley 2012, 292.

  3. 3.

    Kostka 2016; Kostka and Eaton 2014; Ran 2015.

  4. 4.

    Beeson 2010; Gilley 2012.

  5. 5.

    This study concentrates on “air pollution” as it is usually defined in a popular and political context in China. As the introduction to this special issue has explained, the type of air pollution that is currently receiving most attention is atmospheric particulate pollution. Greenhouse gas emissions, that is, climate change politics and so on, are usually treated separately. See, also, Ahlers and Hansen forthcoming.

  6. 6.

    See, also, Beeson 2015, 523. These measures can therefore be expected to go beyond the usual toolbox of environmental politics (e.g. Sterner and Coria 2012). Except for more coercive means than just merely legal sanctioning, they may also include more informal means of incentivizing (see, also, Schmitt in this issue).

  7. 7.

    He and Thøgersen 2010, Truex 2014.

  8. 8.

    Teets 2013.

  9. 9.

    Wike, Richard and Bridget Parker. 2015. “Corruption, Pollution, Inequality Are Top Concerns in China. Pew Research Center – Global Attitudes and Trends,” 24 September, http://www.pewglobal.org/2015/09/24/corruption-pollution-inequality-are-top-concerns-in-china/. Accessed 01 October 2015. See, also, Tilt and Li in this issue.

  10. 10.

    Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China (MEP). 2013. “Zhongzubu yinfa tongzhi gaijin zhengji kaohe gongzuo. Jiada huanjing sunhai deng zhibiao quanzhong” (Central Organization Department issues notice on the revision of evaluation work. Increases the weighting of environmental harm as a criterion). 11 December, http://edcmep.org.cn/hjxw/5762.html. Accessed 26 June 2015.

  11. 11.

    Luo Sha et al. 2013. “Huanbao buzhang tan daqi wuran: ‘jiran tong huxi jiu yao tong fendou’” (The Minister of Environment discusses air pollution: ‘since we breathe together, we must fight together’), 15 June, http://news.sohu.com/20130615/n378878788.shtml. Accessed 26 June 2015.

  12. 12.

    See also the introduction to this special issue by Aunan, Wang, and Hansen.

  13. 13.

    Boren, Zachary Davies. 2015. “China Air Pollution. Things are getting better but 80% of cities are still super smoggy,” Greenpeace Energydesk, 15 October, http://energydesk.greenpeace.org/2015/10/15/china-air-pollution-things-are-getting-better-but-80-of-cities-are-still-super-smoggy/. Accessed 16 October 2015.

  14. 14.

    AFP. 2015. “Air Pollution Levels Drop in China: Greenpeace,” Daily Mail Online, 21 April, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/afp/article-3048298/Air-pollution-levels-drop-China-Greenpeace.html. Accessed 15 October 2015.

  15. 15.

    For a more detailed analysis of major events and shifts in policy-making concerning ambient air pollution in China, see Ahlers and Hansen forthcoming.

  16. 16.

    See Ahlers and Hansen forthcoming and Li and Svarverud in this issue.

  17. 17.

    See, also, Hansen and Liu in this issue.

  18. 18.

    Lewis-Beck, Tang, and Martini 2014; Wang 2008.

  19. 19.

    Beeson 2015, 528.

  20. 20.

    Environmental indicators are increasingly included in governments’ target responsibility contracts and were recently strengthened in the leading cadre evaluation system, Caixin online. 2015. “China to Hold Officials Accountable for Life for Environmental Problems,” 13 August 2015, http://english.caixin.com/2015-05-08/100807608.html. Accessed 10 October 2015.

  21. 21.

    Ahlers and Hansen forthcoming.

  22. 22.

    Delman 2014.

  23. 23.

    Hangzhou City Government 2014a.

  24. 24.

    An “Air Quality Index” combines measurements of major ambient air pollutants and standardizes monitoring of air pollution in China since 2012 (Aunan, Wang, and Hansen in this issue).

  25. 25.

    Interviews, Hangzhou, 13 and 17 January 2015.

  26. 26.

    Interview with leading official from the Comprehensive Evaluation Office of Hangzhou City, Hangzhou, 13 March 2015.

  27. 27.

    Delman 2015.

  28. 28.

    Interview with officials from the Economic and Information Technology Commission of Hangzhou City, Hangzhou, 16 March 2015.

  29. 29.

    In general, during 2014, the average concentration of PM2.5 went down to 64.6 μg/m3(−7.7%) (Hangzhou EPB 2014). For the first three quarters of 2015, Greenpeace reported another drop of 11.7% in average PM2.5 concentration in Hangzhou.

  30. 30.

    Ahlers and Hansen forthcoming.

  31. 31.

    Xinhua Net. 2014. “Hangzhou shishi xiaokeche zongliang tiaokong guanli, xiangou xianxing shuangchong cuoshi” (Hangzhou’s implements control and regulation of small passenger cars: two measures for license limitation and traffic control), 25 March, http://finance.sina.com.cn/roll/20140325/195818610408.shtml. Accessed 16 October 2015.

  32. 32.

    Hangzhou Net. 2015. “Hangzhou shuangxian man yi nian, jiatong daodi gaishan le duoshao?” (Traffic controls have been in effect in Hangzhou for one year now. How much did the traffic situation improve?), 11 May, http://ori.hangzhou.com.cn/ornews/content/2015-05/11/content_5765344.htm. Accessed 16 October 2015.

  33. 33.

    Standing Committee of the People’s Congress of Zhejiang Province 2013.

  34. 34.

    Only a few other cities across China had previously implemented similar controls of car ownership. Shanghai (2000), Beijing (2011), Guangzhou (2012), and Tianjin (2013) each introduced different systems for the obtainment of license plates, which basically meant auction or/and lottery. Hangzhou actually developed its strategy on the basis of the Tianjin model, combining a lottery and auction mode. See, also, Feng and Li 2013.

  35. 35.

    Hangzhou City Government 2014b.

  36. 36.

    Zhejiang Provincial Government 2010.

  37. 37.

    Xinhua Net. 2014. “Hangzhou xianpai: Benyi suihao, naihe shuangshu?” (License limitations in Hangzhou: while the original idea is good, is there not actually a double loss?), 27 March, http://www.zj.xinhua.org/newscenter/headlines/2014-03/27/c_119964187.htm. Accessed 16 October 2015.

  38. 38.

    Interview with car sales manager, Hangzhou, 10 March 2015.

  39. 39.

    Interview with leading official from the Transportation Department of Hangzhou City, Hangzhou, 10 March 2015.

  40. 40.

    Standing Committee of People’s Congress of Zhejiang Province 2013.

  41. 41.

    Interview with leading official from the Transportation Department of Hangzhou City.

  42. 42.

    This means that, for example, cars with license plate digits ending with the numbers “1” and “0” are not allowed to drive in downtown areas between 7:00–9:00 a.m. and 4:30–6:30 p.m. on Mondays. On Tuesdays, this refers to license plate numbers ending in “2” and “9” and so forth.

  43. 43.

    The other major components are estimated to be industrial pollution (22.8%), dust pollution (20.4%), coal burning (18.8%), and others (10%) (Hangzhou City EPB 2014).

  44. 44.

    Hangzhou City EPB 2014.

  45. 45.

    Interview with a leading official from the Traffic Police Department of Hangzhou City, Hangzhou, 9 March 2015.

  46. 46.

    Interview with a leading official from the Transportation Department of Hangzhou City, Hangzhou, 10 March 2015.

  47. 47.

    Nanfang Dushibao (Southern Metropolis Daily). 2014. “Shenzhen tufa shuangxian ling” (Shenzhen announced to immediately limit the number of license plates issued), 30 December. http://paper.oeeee.com/nis/201412/30/312498.html. Accessed 16 October 2015.

  48. 48.

    This was also found by Chen and Zhao (2013) in a survey about public perception of Shanghai City’s car licensing policy.

  49. 49.

    Horizon Key. 2015. “Shuzi jieshi ‘xianxing buru jianliang’” (Numbers show ‘limits do not equal reduction’), 13 January, http://www.horizonkey.com/c/cn/news/2015-01/13/news_2633.html. Accessed 13 June 2015.

  50. 50.

    In the first year, from 1 May 2014, to 30 April 2015, the free lottery had an estimated success rate of 0.81–2.20%. Bidding for a license plate cost up to CNY47,785, which amounted to about one-third of the average price of a 2014 FAW Volkswagen Golf in China, Zhejiang News. 2015. “Shenqing yao bu yao jiashi? Hangzhou xianpai zhengce jiang tiaozheng 4 yue 30 ri qian fabu xingui” (Driving license required for applications? New regulations published before Hangzhou’s [car] license limitation policy is adjusted on April 30th), 13 March, http://zjnews.zjol.com.cn/system/2015/03/13/020550157.shtml. Accessed 21 May 2015.

  51. 51.

    Hangzhou EPB 2011, 13.

  52. 52.

    Interview with a leading official from Hangzhou City’s EPB, Hangzhou, 22 March 2015.

  53. 53.

    Hangzhou EPB 2011, 57.

  54. 54.

    Zhejiang Provincial Government 2006.

  55. 55.

    Hangzhou EPB 2007; Hangzhou EPB 2009.

  56. 56.

    Interview with a leading official of Hangzhou City’s EPB.

  57. 57.

    Interview with the former leader of the residents’ self-help organization of Wanjia Huacheng Community, Hangzhou, 16 July 2015.

  58. 58.

    Interview with the former leader of the residents’ self-help organization of Wanjia Huacheng Community.

  59. 59.

    Hangzhou EPB 2013.

  60. 60.

    Shanghai Maqiao Township Government Website. 2015. “Dajian jiaoliu pingtai, huajie changqun maodun” (Staging a communication platform: conciliating conflicts between factories and the public). 20 May, http://www.shmq.gov.cn/sites/maqiaozhen/maqiaozhen_content.aspx?ctgid=d4894652-c1ca-4d18-9be9-63cc7bc3a5b3&infoId=dee3e45e-f8a2-4c49-b020-0dc1a843203a. Accessed 16 October 2015.

  61. 61.

    Hangzhou Net. 2013. “Liu nian zhengzhi, Banshan Beidaqiao diqu zhongdian wuran qiye huo guanting huo banqian” (Six years’ of regulation: major polluting enterprises in Banshan and Beidaqiao districts were shut down or relocated), 28 November, http://hznews.hangzhou.com.cn/chengshi/content/2013-11/28/content_4981832.htm. Accessed 16 October 2015.

  62. 62.

    Hangzhou Daily. 2014. “Banshan yu Beidaqiao diqu wuran yao qingling, 2016 niandi zai guanting 7 jia daxing qiye” (Industrial pollution is projected to go down to zero in Banshan and Beidaqiao Districts, another 7 large enterprises will be shut down at the end of 2016), 7 September, http://biz.zjol.com.cn/system/2014/09/07/020243176.shtml. Accessed 16 October 2015.

  63. 63.

    Gilley 2012, 289; emphasis added.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Anna L. Ahlers

  2. School of Public Affairs, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

    Yongdong Shen

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  1. Anna L. Ahlers
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Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Public Affairs, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

    Jianxing Yu

  2. Department of Political Science, and Center for US-China Policy Studies, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, USA

    Sujian Guo

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Ahlers, A.L., Shen, Y. (2019). Breathe Easy? Local Nuances of Authoritarian Environmentalism in China’s Battle Against Air Pollution. In: Yu, J., Guo, S. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Local Governance in Contemporary China. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2799-5_34

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