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Men Trying to Stop Women’s Migration

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Abstract

Vigorous debates took place between and within various male groups about the appropriate forms of control over migrant women and a range of strategies of control emerged out of those debates. The South African authorities’ concern about the general “infiltration” of African women and families to the urban areas was almost as old as the towns themselves. These concerns had intensified in the 1920s with accelerating urbanisation. By the 1930s, Bechuanaland colonial officials had come round to the view that the control of migrant women was an issue requiring a policy response. The nature of this response was initially consistent with their decontextualised view of migrant women as abnormal individuals requiring control. This chapter explores the different strains of thinking within the Bechuanaland administration including: spatial confinement, “bonification” and rural development, and disintegrating chiefly powers.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Botswana National Archives (BNA), Bangwaketse Tribal Administration, Box 1, Unit 1, letter #J. 519, I. Daniel for Resident Commissioner, to the Chieftainess Ntebogan, Kanye, 12 May 1927; Public Record Office, London (PRO) DO 9/6, C. L. O’Dutton, Government Secretary, to the Secretary for Native Affairs, 25 March 1927.

  2. 2.

    PRO, DO 9/6, letter #2/8/11, Native Commissioner, Zeerust, to the Secretary for Native Affairs, 19 April 1927. The Native Commissioner expressed these sentiments here.

  3. 3.

    PRO, DO 9/13, 1929, Volume 1, Despatches (01–03), South Africa, Original Correspondence, Tshekedi Khama, to the Resident Magistrate, Serowe, 27 August 1927.

  4. 4.

    Izzard, “Rural-urban Migration in a Developing Country,” 295, quoting Wilson and Thompson, quoting Native Affairs Commission 1921.

  5. 5.

    Intermediate Archives Depot, Johannesburg (IA), Select Committee on Native Affairs, Minutes of Evidence, 4 March 1929, comment by Edwin O. Leake and Graham Ballenden, 5; “Eales, Patriarchs, Passes.”

  6. 6.

    Transvaal Archives Depot (TAD), Government Native Labour Bureau (GNLB) 377, 17/30/76, Identical Minute 145/333, J. F. Herbst, Secretary for Native Affairs, to all Magistrates, Native Commissioners, and Assistant Native Commissioners in the Union, 24 November 1930.

  7. 7.

    TAD, GNLB 414, 56/35A, “Schedule of Undesirable Native Women Repatriated from the WW Rand,” from unknown person, to the Director of Native Labour.

  8. 8.

    TAD, Native Commissioner Johannesburg (KJB) 506, 37/102, Location Superintendent, Luipaardsvlei Location, Krugersdorp Municipality, to the Native Commissioner, Krugersdorp, 11 June 1937.

  9. 9.

    TAD, KJB 506, 37/102, Chief Native Commissioner, Witwatersrand, Department of Native Affairs, to the Native Commissioner, Krugersdorp, 21 June 1937.

  10. 10.

    BNA, Papers of Bechuanaland Protectorate Administration, Secretariat, Mafeking, 1901–1966 (S). 144/9, letter #147, F. Du Plessis, for Secretary for External Affairs, Union Department of External Affairs, to the Administrative Secretary to the High Commissioner for the United Kingdom, 28 June 1941.

  11. 11.

    BNA, S. 387/7/1, High Commissioner’s Office, Pretoria, to A. Sillery, 23 August 1947.

  12. 12.

    IA, Benoni N3/1, Non-European Affairs Committee, 20 June 1955, Natives (Urban Areas) Amendment Act, 1955, Section 6, “Foreign Natives.”

  13. 13.

    African National Congress, “Case Study,” 8.

  14. 14.

    BNA, Papers of Resident Magistrate/District Commissioner offices (DCS) 5/14, Tshekedi Khama, to the Resident Magistrate, Serowe, 5 March 1936.

  15. 15.

    BNA, DCS 5/14, G. E. Nettelton, Resident Magistrate, to the Acting Chief Tshekedi Khama, 6 March 1936.

  16. 16.

    BNA, Bangwaketse Tribal Administration, Box 2, Unit 6, J. F. Oosthuizen, Randfontein, PO Korster, to Chief B. S. Of the Bangwaketse, to Mr. J. F. Oosthuizen, Korster, 22 February 1938.

  17. 17.

    Botswana Collection (BC), Minutes of the Bechuanaland Protectorate Native Advisory Council, 26 March–1 April 1940, 61.

  18. 18.

    BNA, S. 387/5, A. D. Forsyth Thompson, Resident Commissioner, to Government Secretary, 5 December 1942. This is also recorded in BNA, S. 464/1, Minutes, Resident Commissioner, 5 December 1942.

  19. 19.

    BNA, S. 464/1, Memorandum, C. N. A. C., to unknown person, 3 November 1942, [containing the Resident Commissioner’s observations on Chaplin’s report].

  20. 20.

    PRO, DO 35.1178, Y. 847/1/1, “Report prepared by A. G. T. Chaplin,” 1 September 1942, quoting Resident Commissioners’ Conference, opening address, comment by High Commissioner, 15 October 1941.

  21. 21.

    BNA, S. 144/9, Circular Memorandum, J. W. Joyce for Government Secretary, to All District Commissioners, 18 July 1944.

  22. 22.

    BNA, S. 144/9, letter #N/2, District Commissioner, Kanye, to the Government Secretary, 13 October 1947.

  23. 23.

    Steenkamp, “A Vision of Order,” 174, quoting The Star, “Affairs in B. P.,” 21 August 1931.

  24. 24.

    Wylie, “Migrants to Freehold Farms,” 440.

  25. 25.

    BNA, S. 387/7/3, Minutes #6930/6 III, “Control of Recruiting,” D. M. R., F. A. S., 29 November 1957.

  26. 26.

    Steenkamp, “‘Cinderella of the Empire?’.”

  27. 27.

    BC, Minutes of the 13th session of the Bechuanaland Protectorate European Advisory Council meeting, 1928, comment by Mr. Weatherilt, 43.

  28. 28.

    Steenkamp, “A Vision of Order,” 172, quoting The Star, “Affairs in B. P. 1—Detribalisation and the Waste of Manpower,” 2 August 1931.

  29. 29.

    Steenkamp, “A Vision of Order,” 172, quoting BNA, S. 242/1, “Reports on Native Affairs in the B. P., 1931–1932—M. I. Hodgson and W. G. Ballinger, Memo 2: Britain and the South African Protectorates,” May 1930.

  30. 30.

    BNA, S. 464/1, Minutes, A. D. Forsyth Thompson, Resident Commissioner, 5 December 1942 [commenting on Chaplin’s report]. These minutes are also located in BNA, S. 387/5.

  31. 31.

    Bitsang, “Chiefs, the Transfer,” 14, quoting High Commissioners Proclamations and Government Notices, Vol. XIX (1934), 88–95.

  32. 32.

    BNA, S. 464/1, Minutes, Resident Commissioner, 5 December 1942 [commenting on Chaplin’s report].

  33. 33.

    Mager, “‘The People Get Fenced’”; De Wet, “Betterment Planning.”

  34. 34.

    BNA, S. 263/6, BaKgatla Reserve Annual Report, 1939, Sinclair, Assistant District Commissioner, Mochudi, to the Government Secretary, Mafeking, 18 January 1939. 10.

  35. 35.

    Steenkamp, “A Vision of Order.” Most of this paragraph is based on Steenkamp’s thesis.

  36. 36.

    Molutsi, “The History of Agriculture,” 2, quoting BNA, S. 168/7, Minutes on the Opening of BaKgatla Agricultural Show, 9 October 1930.

  37. 37.

    BC, Minutes of the 7th meeting of the Bechuanaland Protectorate Native Advisory Council, 17 March 1927, 9, comment by Chief Isang.

  38. 38.

    Molutsi, “The History of Agriculture,” 2, quoting BNA, S. 434/3, “Fertilizers: Use of in Development of Native Agriculture,” 9 September 1938.

  39. 39.

    BNA, BNB 230, Pim, “Financial and Economic Position,” 88.

  40. 40.

    BNA, S. 523/15, Kgatleng District Annual Report, 1948, 4; BNA, S. 500/10, Kgatleng District Annual Report, 1947, MacRae, District Commissioner, Mochudi, to the Government Secretary, Mafeking, 2 April 1948.

  41. 41.

    BNA, S. 387/1/1, letter #L/5, Assistant District Commissioner, Tsabong, to the Government Secretary, 11 December 1946; BNA, S. 387/1/1, letter #L/1, Bathoen II, Paramount Chief of Bangwaketse to unknown person, 6 January 1947; BC, Minutes of the 20th session of the Bechuanaland Protectorate Native Advisory Council, 6–10 March 1939, 25–29. “Deferred pay” was extensively discussed in the Native Advisory Council Meetings.

  42. 42.

    BNA, S. 387/7/1, letter #8261, High Commissioner’s Office, Pretoria, to A. Sillery, 23 August 1947, 2.

  43. 43.

    BNA, S. 387/7/1, letter #L/1, Bathoen II, Paramount Chief of Bangwaketse, Kanye, to the Government Secretary {?}, 6 January 1947, 2.

  44. 44.

    BNA, S. 387/5, letter #3207/10 (marked “confidential”), A. D. Forsyth Thompson, Government Secretary, Resident Commissioner’s Office, Mafeking, to the Administrative Secretary to the High Commissioner, Capetown, 5 April 1940.

  45. 45.

    BNA, Minutes of the 36th session of the Bechuanaland Protectorate European Advisory Council, 12–16 March 1945, comment by the Resident Commissioner, 10.

  46. 46.

    PRO, DO 119/1268, Schapera, “Migrant Labour” (Report), 171.

  47. 47.

    BC, Minutes of 21st session of the Bechuanaland Protectorate African Advisory Council, 26 March–1 April 1940, comment by Resident Commissioner, 60.

  48. 48.

    Steenkamp, “A Vision of Order,” 190.

  49. 49.

    Wylie, “Migrants to Freehold Farms,” 439, BNA, S. 344/11/f.52, Ellenberger, to unknown person, 9 April 1949.

  50. 50.

    Steenkamp, “A Vision of Order,” 191.

  51. 51.

    Bitsang, “Chiefs, the Transfer,” 18.

  52. 52.

    BC, Minutes of the 37th session of the Bechuanaland Protectorate African Advisory Council, 14–20 May 1957, 127, comment by Mr. Tshekedi Khama.

  53. 53.

    BNA, S. 387/7/2, Extract from Minutes of the 1955 Administrative Conference, Item 2, Recruitment by Labour Agents, comment by District Commissioner, Maun.

  54. 54.

    BNA, S. 387/7/3, Dominions’ Office internal correspondence, informal handwritten note, from DNR to unknown person, 24 February 1958.

  55. 55.

    Walker, “Gender and the Development,” 180.

  56. 56.

    Ibid, 181 quoting Kimble, “Labour Migration,” 18.

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    Camilla May Cockerton

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Cockerton, C.M. (2019). Men Trying to Stop Women’s Migration. In: Contested Migration. Palgrave Pivot, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2589-2_7

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2589-2_7

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