Abstract
This chapter argues that non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have been engaged in social capital revitalization, linking communities to environmental policymaking and policy advocacy for enhancing livelihood access by the poor to natural resources. In Indonesia, poverty is still pervasive in coastal areas. Livelihoods of artisanal fishermen and small farmers that directly rely on natural resources are threatened by environmental degradation, resulting in further exclusion of the poor from accessing natural resources for their livelihoods. Exclusions take place because of centralization of resources management, uncontrolled commodification of resources and criminalization of local livelihoods in the state-claimed resources.
In the context of continuing coastal resources depletion and deterioration of access by the poor to resources for livelihoods due to resources grabbing, NGOs defend the livelihoods of artisanal fishermen and smallholder farmers. With case studies from North Sumatera and Lampung in Indonesia, the chapter argues that NGOs build local community capabilities through enhancing and building local associations that strengthen social cohesion, collective action and political capital for livelihoods resources access. The key finding of the study is that linkages, networks and alliances of civil society actors help to enhance political capital which can be mobilized to achieve improved representation and articulation of the interests of local communities in the struggle for resources rights. Collective actions to demand spaces in the policy process to reclaim resources have become the pattern of environmental citizenship in Sumatra.
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Notes
- 1.
Expansion of palm oil on Sumatra took place particularly in the East Coast. Because of its suitability for coastal lowland areas, most coastal and low land areas of Sumatra have been converted to palm oil plantations. Palm oil is suitable for growing in the areas 10–500 m above sea level, at an elevation of between 16–30 degrees, and a temperature range of 24–28°C and rainfall of 2,000–3,000 mm per year as well as sun for 5 to 7 hours per day.
- 2.
According to FAO, illegal fishing refers to fishing activities without the permission of the State, or in violation of national laws or international obligations.
- 3.
Indonesia is rich in terms of coral reefs. With 50,000 to 100,000 km2 of coral areas, Indonesia has one of the richest coral reef resources in the world. Sjafrie, in his analysis of coral reefs in Belitung Island, highlights some direct and indirect services of coral reefs to local communities. Direct services include contribution of reefs to fisheries. In those areas where coral reefs are present, there is a larger number and variety of fish stocks. In addition, reefs are used as building materials for housing construction. Indirect benefits include blocking tides and acting as biodiversityhabitats.
- 4.
In a conference of WALHI (Wahana Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia) in 1976, when translated to ORNOP, the authoritarian New Order government reacted against the term. In a workshop on integrated ruraldevelopment held by Sekretariat Bina Desa, 13–18 April 1978 in Central Java, two terms were proposed: Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat (Community Self-Reliance Institutes) and Lembaga Pengembangan Swadaya Masyarakat (Community Self-Reliance Development Institutes).
- 5.
The first environment act in Indonesia was Act No. 4 of 1982, which has been renewed with Act No. 23 of 1997 concerning Environmental Management. The Act No. 32 of 2009, is the most recent revision of the previous act.
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Sitorus, H. (2019). Negotiating Livelihoods Access to Coastal Resources: Environmental Citizenship by NGOs in Indonesia. In: James, H. (eds) Population, Development, and the Environment. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2101-6_11
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2101-6_11
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